CHASE  &  STUABT'S  OLASSIOAL  SEEIES, 


LATIN  GEAMMAE. 


BY 

THOMAS  CHASE,  LTT.D.,  LL.D., 

PRESIDENT  OF  HAVERFORD  COLLEGE. 


PHILADELPHIA: 

ELDREDGE  &  BROTHER, 

No.  17  North  Seventh  Street. 
1882. 


CHASE  &  STUART'S  CLASSICAL  SERIES 

—  COMPRISES  — 

A    FIRST   LATIN    BOOK, 
A   LATIN   GRAMMAR, 
A    LATIN   READER, 

And  Editions  of  all  the  Latin  Authors 
usually  read  in  Schools. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1882,  by 

ELDREDGE  &  BROTHER, 
In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


6- 


7 


author  of  this  treatise  has  endeavored  to  state  clearly 
-  and  directly  those  facts  of  Grammar  which  a  student  of 
Latin  most  needs  to  know,  and  thus  to  conduct  him  by  the 
surest  path  to  a  mastery  of  the  language..  The  discoveries 
of  recent  philological  science  have  not  been  neglected,  but 
care  has  been  taken  not  to  overlay  and  obscure  the  facts 
which  form  the  proper  subject  of  the  book  with  a  mass  of 
matter  belonging  only  to  a  treatise  on  Comparative  Phi- 
lology. 

Unnecessary  definitions  have  been  avoided;  the  para- 
digms are  set  forth  clearly,  in  distinct  type ;  the  rules  of 
Syntax  have  been  stated  as  simply  as  possible. 

In  Prosody,  the  views  of  the  new  school  have  been  to  a 
great  extent  adopted.  One  word  of  warning,  however,  is 
due,  that  the  theory  of  irrational  times  should  not  be  pressed 
so  far  as  to  destroy  the  variety  which  the  introduction  of 
different  feet  produced,  in  measures  which  would  otherwise 
be  monotonous.  Horace  says  of  the  iambic  trimeter, 

"  Tardior  ut  paulo  graviorque  veniret  ad  aures, 
Spondeos  stabiles  in  jura  paterna  recepit." 


IV  PREFACE. 

Perhaps  the  greatest  merit  of  recent  metrists  is  their  recog- 
nition of  the  value  of  pauses,  and  of  the  fact  that  a  single 
syllable  by  prolongation  may  stand  for  a  whole  foot. 

\o  work  on  Grammar  could  be  meritorious  or  complete, 
whose  author  was  not  greatly  indebted  to  the  labors  of  his 
predecessors.  It  gives  me  pleasure  to  acknowledge  my 
obligation  to  the  treatises  of  the  great  grammarians  of 
Germany,  and  to  Key,  Kennedy,  and  Roby  among  the 
English. 

Finally,  this  book  is  committed,  not  without  confidence, 
to  the  judgment  of  the  accomplished  teachers  of  our  land, 
and  of  the  intelligent  students  whose  happiness  it  will  be 
to  learn  the  great  tongue  of  Rome  under  their  guidance. 

T.  C. 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


Alphabet 9 

Vowels  and  Consonants 9 

Ancient  Method  of  Pronunciation..  10 

English  Method . 11 

"Continental"  Method 12 


PAGE 

Syllables 12 

Quantity 12 

General  Rules  of  Quantity 13 

Accentuation 14 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Parts  of  Speech 15 

Gender 15 

Numbers  and  Cases 16 

Roots  and  Stems 17 

Declension 17 

First  Declension 18 

Greek  Nouns 19 

Second  Declension 20 

Greek  Nouns 23 

Third  Declension 23 

Consonant  Stems 23 

I-  Stems 25 

Case  Terminations 27 

Rules  for  Gender 32 

Irregular  Nouns 33 

Greek  Nouns 34 

Fourth  Declension 35 

Fifth  Declension 36 

General  View  of  the  Declensions...  37 

Defective  Nouns 37 

Heterogeneous  Nouns 40 

Heteroclites 41 

Redundant  Nouns 41 

Nouns  with  Different  Meaning  in 

the  Singular  and  Plural 42 

Declension  of  Adjectives 43 

Adjectives  of  the  First  and  Second 

Declension 43 

Adjectives  of  the  Third  Declension  45 

Irregular  Adjectives 48 

Comparison  of  Adjectives 49 

1* 


Irregular  or  Defective  Comparison.  49 
Comparison  by  prefixing  Magis  and 

Maxime 51 

Comparison  of  Adverbs 52 

Notes  on  the  Comparative  and  Su- 
perlative   53 

Numerals 53 

Cardinal  Numbers 54 

Ordinals,  Distributives,  and  Nume- 
ral Adverbs 55 

Declension  of  Numerals 57 

Compound  Numbers,  etc 58 

Numeral  Expression  of  Fractions...  59 

Personal  Pronouns 60 

Possessive  Pronouns 61 

Demonstrative  Pronouns 61 

Definitive  Pronouns 62 

Relative  Pronouns 64 

Interrogative  Pronouns 64 

Indefinite  Pronouns 64 

Compound  Pronouns 65 

Table  of  Correlative   Pronominal 

Adjectives  and  Adverbs 66 

Pronominal  Adverbs  of  Place 67 

Pronominal  Adverbs  of  Time 68 

Verbs * 68 

Voices 68 

Transitive  and  Intransitive  Verbs..  68 

Moods 68 

Participles,  Gerund,  and  Supines...  69 

Tenses 69 


VI 


CONTENTS. 


PACK 

Present  Stem 70 

Perfect  Stem  ....: 70 

Supine  Stem 70 

Principal  Parts 70 

Inflection  of  Sum 71 

Inflection  of  Possum 73 

Conjugations 75 

First  Conjugation 75 

Inflection  of  Amo 76 

Second  Conjugation 81 

Inflection  of  Moneo 81 

Third  Conjugation 86 

Inflection  of  Rego 86 

Inflection  of  Capio 91 

Fourth  Conjugation 93 

Inflection  of  Audio 94 

Deponent  Verbs 98 

Inflection  of  Deponents 99 

Remarks  on  Deponents 101 

Quasi-Passive  or  Neutral   Passive 

Verbs 101 

Semi-Deponents  or  Neuter  Passive 

Verbs 101 

Tabular  Scheme  of  the  Four  Con- 
jugations   102 

Periphrastic  Conjugations 106 

Supine 106 

Compound  Tenses :..  106 

Special  Forms  and  Abbreviations 

of  Verbs 107 

Irregular  Verbs 108 

Defective  Verbs 119 

Praeteritive  Verbs 121 

Impersonal  Verbs 122 

Inceptive  or  Inchoative  Verbs 124 

Frequentative  or  Intensive  Verbs...  124 


PAGE 

Intensives  in  -essoand  -isso 125 

Desiderative  Verbs 125 

Diminutive  Verbs 125 

Imitative  Verbs 125 

Inflections  of  Verbs 125 

Terminations    indicating   Person, 

Number,  and  Voice 125 

Mood  Characteristics 128 

Tense  Endings  from  the   Present 

Stem 130 

Tense  Endings  from   the   Perfect 

Stem 132 

Participles  and  Tenses  from  the  Su- 
pine Stem 133 

Verb  Stems 134 

The  Present  Stem 134 

Formation  of  the  Perfect  Stem 137 

Formation  of  the  Supine  Stem 137 

Table  of  Verbs  with  Principal  Parts.  138 

Particles 148 

Adverbs 149 

Conjunctions 149 

Prepositions ; 151 

Prepositions  in  Composition 151 

Inseparable  Particles 153 

Interjections 153 

Formation  of  Words 156 

Suffixes 156 

Significant  Endings 156 

Nouns  derived  from  Verbs 156 

Nouns  derived  from  Nouns 158 

Nouns  derived  from  Adjectives 161 

Adjectives  formed  from  Verbs 162 

Adjectives  formed  from  Nouns 162 

Formation  of  Verbs 165 

Compound  Words 165 


SYNTAX. 


Sentences 167 

Subject  and  Predicate 167 

Subject  of  a  Finite  Verb 169 

Subject  of  an  Infinitive 169 

Subject  Nominative  and  Verb 169 

Predicate  Noun  and  Adjective 170 

Apposition 171 

Agreement  of  Adjectives 172 

Agreement  of  Relative  Pronouns...  174 
Use  of  Personal  and  Possessive  Pro- 
nouns   174 

Demonstrative  Pronouns. 175 

Reflexives 176 

The  Definitive  Ipse 177 

Indefinite  Pronouns 177 

Pronominal  Adjectives 178 


Nominative  Case 179 

Vocative  Case 179 

Accusative  of  Direct  Object 179 

Compound  Verbs  becoming  Transi- 
tive   180 

Cognate  Accusative 181 

Limiting  or  Defining  Accusative....  181 
Accusative  after  Passives  used  Re- 

fiexively 181 

Two  Accusatives. 182 

Accusative  of  Specification 182 

Adverbial  Accusative 182 

Accusative  of  Extent  of  Time  or 

Space 183 

Terminal  Accusative 183 

Accusative  after  Prepositions 184 


CONTENTS. 


Vll 


PAOB 

Accusative  in  Exclamations 184 

Adnominal  Genitive 184 

Gfenitive  of  Possession 185 

Subjective  Genitive 185 

Objective  Genitive 185 

Genitive  after  Partitives 186 

Genitive  of  Definition 187 

Genitive  of  Material 187 

Genitive  after  Prepositional  Nouns.  187 
Genitive  of  Quality  or  Description.  187 

Genitive  as  a  Predicate 188 

Genitive  after  Adjectives 188 

Genitive  after  Verbs 189 

Accusative    and    Genitive    after 

Verbs 189 

Genitive  after  Refert  and  Interest..  190 

Special  Uses  of  the  Genitive 191 

Genitive  of  Value -. 191 

Genitive  or  Ablative  with  Verbs  of 

Buying  and  Selling 191 

Locative  Genitive  or  Genitive  of 

.  Place 192 

Dative  Defined 192 

Dative  of  Advantage  or  Disadvan- 
tage   192 

Accusative  and  Dative  after  Verbs.  193 
Accusative  and  Dative  or  Accusa- 
tive and  Ablative 193 

Dative  after  Verbs 193 

Dative   after  Verbs   Compounded 

with  Prepositions 194 

Dative  of  the  Possessor 195 

Dative  of  the  Agent  (so  called) 195 

Dative  Limiting  the  whole  Predi- 
cate    196 

Ethical  Dative 196 

Dative  or  Accusative  after  Verbs 197 

Two  Datives  after  Verbs 197 

Dative  after  Adjectives 197 

Dative  after  Adverbs,  Interjections, 

and  Verbal  Nouns 198 

Ablative  Defined 198 

Ablative  of  Cause,  Manner,  and  In- 
strument   198 

Ablative  after  certain  Verbs  and 

Adjectives 199 

Ablative  after  Opus  and  Usus 199 

Ablative  of  the  Material 200 

Ablative  of  the  Voluntary  Agent 

with  Ab 200 

Ablative  after  Comparatives 200 

Ablative  of  Quality 201 

Ablative  of  the  Degree  of  Difference.  201 

Ablative  of  Separation 201 

Ablative  of  Source 202 

Ablative  of  Price 202 


Ablative  with  Dignus  and  Indignus  202 

Ablative  of  Specification 202 

Ablative  after  Adjectives 203 

Ablative  of  Place  W  hence 203 

Ablative  of  Place  Where 203 

Ablative  of  Route 204 

Ablative  of  Time 204 

Ablative  after  Prepositions 205 

Ablative  Absolute 205 

Indicative  Mood 206 

Present  Tense 206 

Imperfect 207 

Future 208 

Perfect  and  Aorist 208 

Pluperfect... 209 

Future  Perfect 209 

Indicative  as  an  Auxiliary 210 

Periphrastic  Conjugations 210 

Passive  Compound  Tenses 210 

Tenses  in  Letters 211 

Subjunctive  Mood 211 

Potential  Subjunctive 212 

Optative  Subjunctive 212 

Concessive  Subjunctive 213 

Questions  of  Deliberation  or  Appeal.  214 

Potential  Questions 214 

Subjunctive  of  Purpose 214 

Subjunctive  of  Result .' 215 

Subjunctive  in  Substantive  Clauses.  215 
Ut  and  Ne  after  Verbs  of  Fearing...  216 
Moods  in  Clauses  denoting  Time....  216 

Cum  Causal 218 

Conditional  Sentences 219 

Mixed  Conditional  Constructions...  220 
Various  Ways  of  Denoting  Condi- 
tions  221 

Gnomic  Subjunctive 221 

Unexpressed  Protasis 221 

Omitted  Apodosis 222 

Relatives  in  the  Protasis 222 

Relative  Clauses  of  Purpose 222 

Relative  Clauses  Denning  a  Quality.  222 
Relative  Clauses  Denoting  the  Rea- 
son   224 

Adversative  Relative  Clauses 224 

Subjunctive  Dependent  on  another 
Subjunctive  or  on  an  Infinitive...  224 

Relatives  with  the  Indicative 225 

Oratio  Obliqua 225 

Conditional  Sentences  in  Oratio  Ob- 
liqua   226 

Persons  and  Pronouns  in  Oratio  Ob- 
liqua    227 

Virtual  Oratio  Obliqua 228 

Indirect  Questions 228 

Causal  Clauses 229 


Vlll 


CONTEXTS. 


Quod  meaning  the  Fact  That 229 

Sequence  of  Tenses 230 

Infinitive  Defined 231 

Infinitive  as  Subject,  Predicate,  or 

Appositive 231 

Infinitive  as  Object 231 

Infinitive  with  a  Subject  Accusative.  231 
Infinitive  after  Verbs  of  Will,  Pow- 
er, Duty 233 

Infinitive,  Accusative  with  Infini- 
tive, or  Ut  with  Subjunctive 233 

Historic  Infinitive.- 234 

Special  Uses  of  the  Infinitive 234 

Personal  Construction  of  Passives 

for  Impersonal 235 

Tenses  of  the  Infinitive 235 

The  Imperative  Present 236 


The  Imperative  Future 236 

Substitutes  for  the  Affirmative  Im- 
perative  236 

Substitutes  for  the  Negative  Imper- 
ative  237 

Periphrases  of  the  Imperative 237 

Participles 237 

The  Circumstantial  Participle 238 

Some  Participial  Constructions 239 

Gerunds  and  Gerundives 240 

Accusative  Supine 242 

Ablative  Supine 243 

Adverbs 243 

Two  Negatives 243 

Conjunctions 244 

Interrogative  Particles 244 


Order  of  Words 246  i  Periods 251 

Position  of  Subordinate  Sentences.  251  I  Arrangement  of  Clauses 251 

PROSODY. 


Quantity  in  Verse 253 

Quantity  by  Position 2-54 

Diphthongs  and  Contracted  Sylla- 
bles  255 

Derivatives  and  Compounds 255 

Monosyllables 256 

Final  Syllables  in  Polysyllables 257 

Increments 258 

Penults  and  Autepenults 260 

Natural  Quantity 260 

Authority 261 

Elision 261 

Hiatus 261 

Synaeresis 262 

Dialysis  or  Diaeresis 262 

Syncope 262 

Systole 262 

Diastole 263 

Tmesis 263 

Synaphia 263 

Versification 263 

Arsis  and  Thesis 263 


List  of  Feet 264 

Technical  Terms 264 

The  Dactylic  Hexameter 266 

Caesura 267 

Hypermetrical  Verses 268 

The  Elegiac  Distich 268 

Other  Dactylic  Metres 268 

Trochaic  Metres.... 269 

Dactylo-Trochaic  or  Logaoedic  Ver- 
ses   270 

Trochaeo-Dactylic  Metres 270 

Choriambic  Metres ~ 271 

Cretic  aud  Greater  Ionic  Metres 272 

Anapaestic  Metres 272 

Iambic  Metres 272 

Anapaesto-Iambic  Metre 273 

Bacchiac  and  Lesser  Ionic  Metres...  273 

larnbsaud  Dactyls 273 

lambico-Trochaic  Metre 274 

Horatian  Metres 274 

Early  Dramatic  Verse 275 

Metrical  Reading 276 


APPENDIX. 


Grammatical  Terms  and  Figures....  277 
Rhetorical   Terms   or    Figures   of 

Speech 279 

Value  of  Coins 282 

The  Naming  of  Sums  of  Money 283 

Interest 283 

Weights 

Measures  of  Length 284 


Measures  of  Surface 

Measures  of  Capacity 284 

Computation  of  Time •>•"> 

Roman  Calendar 287 

Principal  Extant  Latin  Authors 288 

Abbreviations  .. 291 

Index  of  Subjects 295 


OF  THB  X 

UNIVERSITY  A 


LATIN   GRAMMAR. 


THE  ALPHABET. 

1.  THE  Latin  Alphabet  now  in  use  has  the  same  letters  as 
the  English,  except  that  it  has  no  W. 

1.  I  and  J  were  originally  represented  by  one  character,  I,  as  were  also 
U  and  V  by  V. 

2.  X  and  Y  are  found  only  in  words  derived  from  the  Greek. 

3.  K  is  used  chiefly  in  abbreviations,  or  as  the  initial  letter  of  a  few 
words,  as  Kalendae,  JZarthago. 

4.  Q  always  blends  with  U  (V). 

5.  The  letters  have  two  forms  :  the  capital,  which  alone  was  used  in 
ancient  times  ;  and  the  small. 

VOWELS  AND  CONSONANTS. 

2.  The  vowels,  sounding  by  themselves,  are  A,  E,  I,  O,  U,  Y. 
The  remaining  letters  are  called  consonants,  as  sounding  with 
vowels. 

1.  The  diphthongs  are  AE  (^E),  OE  (<E),  AU,  El,  EU, 
and  UI.  The  first  three  occur  the  most  frequently. 

2.  AI,  OI,  and  OU  are  found  as  diphthongs  in  early  Latin,  and  YI  in 
some  Greek  words  (as  Harpyia). 

3.  When  two  vowels  meet,  but  are  not  to  be  taken  as  a  diphthong,  the 
mark  of  diaeresis  (..)  is  sometimes  placed  over  the  second;  as,  poe'ta,  pro- 
nounced po-e-ta. 

4.  The  consonants  are  divided  (as  in  the  following  table)  into  labials, 
linguals  (or  lingual-dentals),  and  palatals  (or  gutturals),  according  as  they 

9 


10  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

are  spoken  principally  with  the  lip,  tongue,  or  palate ;  and  into  surds  (or 

hard),  sonants  (or  toft),  and  nasal,  according  to  the  mode  of  utterance. 
• 

MUTES.  NASALS. 

Surd.          Sonant. 

LABIALS,  P  B  M 

LINGUALS,          T  D  N 

PALATALS,          C,  K,  Q        G       .       N 

5.  The  surds  and  sonants  in  the  above  table  are  called  mutes ;  L,  M,  N, 
and  R  are  called  liquids;  F,  (PH,)  (TH,)  H,  S,  and  Z  are  called  fricatives 
(or  spirants);  S  and  Z,  sibilante ;  H,  an  aspirate;  J,  R,  L,  and  V,  semi- 
vowels; X  (CS)  and  Z  (DS),  double  consonants. 


PRONUNCIATION. 

3.  By  most  nations  Latin  is  pronounced  substantially  as 
words  so  spelled  would  be  pronounced  in  the  language  of  the 
nation  itself;  in  America,  however,  at  least  three  different 
methods  are  found : 

I.  THE  PROBABLE  ANCIENT  OR  ROMAN  METHOD, 

which  attempts  to  give  the  pronunciation  in  use  in  the  best 
ages  of  the  living  language.     In  it 

a  long  is   pronounced   as  a  in  father,  a  slwrt  with  the  same 

sound  shorter,  or  as  the  a  in  dogma ; 
e  long  as  e  in  they ;  e  short  as  e  in  set ; 
i  long  as  i  in  machine;  i  short  as  i  in  sit; 
o  long  as  o  in  tone ;  o  short  as  o  in  domestic ; 
n  long  as  u  in  rude  (L  e.,  as  oo  in  too} ;  n  short  as  oo  in  boot; 
y  like  the  French  u,  with  the  proper  distinction  as  long  or 

short; 

ae  and  ai  like  ai  in  aisle ; 
au  like  ow  in  owl ; 
oe  and  oi  nearly  like  oi  in  spoil; 
ei  as  ei  in  eight ; 
en  like  eh-oo  rapidly  spoken; 
ui  like  the  English  word  we ; 
j  (i  consonans)  like  y  in  year,  but  stronger ; 


PRONUNCIATION.  11 

v  (u  consonans)  nearly  like  w,  or  more  exactly  like  ou  in  the 

French  word  oui ; 
c  always  hard,  as  in  can ; 
g  always  hard,  as  in  get  ; 
r  should  be  trilled ; 

s  always  hard,  as  in  sin,  and  never  like  z  or  sh ; 
t  always  hard,  like  t  in  tin ; 
x  always  hard,  as  in  axe ; 
z  nearly  like  s  (or  like  dz) ; 
gu  and  su,  when  making  one  syllable  with  the  following  vowel, 

like  gw,  sw,  as  in  lingua,  suasor ; 
qu  as  qu  in  English  ;  before  u  like  k ; 
bs  like  ps ; 
bt  like  pt ; 

ch  like  k  followed  by  h; 

i  forji  in  the  compounds  ofjaeio  (as  eicit,  reicif),  like  yi  (thus, 
e-yicit,  re-yicit). 

Letters  not  named  in  this  table  are  sounded  as  in  English. 

1.  In  the  imperial  period  AE  acquired  the  sound  of  long  E  (i.  e.,  that  of 
e  in  they). 

2.  If  students  find  any  difficulty  in  giving  to  Y  the  sound  of  the  French 
u,  it  may  be  pronounced  like  I  (i.  e.,  where  long,  as  in  machine;  short,  as 
in  sit). 

3.  In  some  schools  which  use  the  Roman  pronunciation  Latin  V  is  pro- 
nounced as  in  English. 

II.    THE  ENGLISH  METHOD, 

in  which  words  are  spoken  in  accordance  with  the  ordinary 
laws  of  regular  English  pronunciation,  with  a  few  special 
rules :  viz.,  es  at  the  end  of  a  word  is  pronounced  like  the 
English  word  ease;  os  at  the  end  of  plural  cases  like  ose  in 
dose ;  a  at  the  end  of  a  word  like  the  final  a  in  America  (or 
like  short  a  in  the  Roman  method) ;  ch  always  like  k,  as  in 
Magna  Charta  (kar-tah)  ;  ti  when  followed  by  a  vowel  like  sh, 
if  the  accent  is  on  the  preceding  syllable,  as  ratio,  pr.  rd-shi-o ; 
but  the  hard  sound  is  retained  (1)  after  s,  t,  and  x,  as  injwtior, 


12  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


Attiu*,  Sexfia*;  (2)  when  the  accent  is  on  the  ?',  as  in  totim  ; 
(3)  in  the  antique  form  of  the  infinitive  passive  of  verbs,  as 
flectier;  and  (4)  in  Greek  words. 

III.    THE  CONTINENTAL  METHOD, 

(inexactly  so  called),  in  which,  in  its  most  consistent  form,  the 
vowels  are  pronounced  as  in  Italian  (substantially  as  in  the 
ancient  method),  and  the  consonants  as  in  English  (except 
that,  immediately  succeeding  the  accent,  and  before  i  followed 
by  another  vowel,  c  and  s  are  sounded  like  s  pure,  and  t  as 
in  tin,  and  not  like  sk). 

4.  Whatever  system  of  pronunciation  is  adopted,   proper 
names,  in  translating  into  English,  should  always  take  the 
English  sound.     Latin  phrases  used  in  ordinary  speech,  as 
sine  die,  viva  voce,  should  also  be  pronounced  in  the  English 
method. 

SYLLABLES. 

5.  In   every  Latin  word   there  are  as  many  syllables   as 
there  are  separate  vowels  and  diphthongs. 

1.  In  printing  and  writing  Latin,  and  in  the  Koman  pronun- 
ciation, the  following  rules  are  observed  in  the  division  of 
syllables  : 

1.  A  single  consonant  between  two  vowels  is  joined  to  the  second  :  as, 
ro-sa,  a  rose. 

2.  If  several  consonants  come  between  two  vowels,  as  many  of  them  as 
can  begin  a  word  in  Greek  or  Latin  arejoined  to  the  latter  :  as,  pa-tris,  a-cris, 
i-gnis.  o-mnis,  pun-ctus,  pro-pter,  po-sco,  i-ste,  ar-tus,  sal-tus,  men-sa. 

3.  Evident  and  uncontracted  compounds  are  divided  into  their  component 
parts  :   as,  post-ea,  res-publica;  but  we  write  vae-neo,  ma-gnanimus. 

4.  In  the  English  method  of  pronunciation,  English  analogy  is  followed 
in  the  division  of  syllables. 

QUANTITY. 

6.  The  Quantity  of  syllables  is  short  (  u  ),  long  (  —  ),  or 
common  (  —  ,  by  preference  long  ;  O  ,  by  preference  short). 


QUANTITY.  13 

1.  A  syllable  may  be  (1)  short  or  long  by  nature :  amas ; 
(2)  short  by  nature,  but  long  by  position :  vmdex ;  (3)  short 
by  nature,  but  doubtful  by  position :  quadruple. 

7.    GENERAL  RULES  OF  QUANTITY. 

1.  When  a  short  vowel  stands  before  two  or  more  conso- 
nants, or  a  double  consonant,  or  the  letter  j,  the  syllable  is 
counted  long  by  position. 

Exc.  1.  A  vowel  naturally  short  before  a  mute  followed  by  1  or  r  is 
common  ;  that  is,  in  verse  it  may  be  either  long  or  short. 
Exc.  2.  In  the  compounds  of  jugum,  the  vowel  before  J  is  short. 
Exc.  3.  H  is  regarded  only  as  a  breathing. 

2.  Diphthongs  and  contracted  syllables  are  long. 

3.  One  vowel  before  another  vowel,  or  before  h,  is  short. 

4.  Derivative  and  compound  words  follow  the  quantity  of 
their  primitives. 

8.  RULES  FOR  FINAL  SYLLABLES 

1.  a  final  is  short  in  declinable  words,  but  long  in  others. 
It  is  also  long  in  the  ablative  singular  of  nouns  of  the  first 
declension. 

2.  e  and  y  final  are  short ;  but  e  is  long  in  the  first  and 
fifth  declensions,  and  in  adverbs  derived  from  adjectives  in 
-us. 

3.  i  and  u  final  are  long. 

4.  o  final  is  variable,  but  long  in  datives  and  ablatives. 

5.  The  terminations  as,  es,  and  os  are  usually  long. 

6.  The  terminations  is,  us,  and  ys  are  usually  short ;  but  us 
in  the  genitive  singular,  and  nominative,  accusative,  and  voca- 
tive plural,  of  the  fourth  declension  is  always  long ;  also  in 
words  like  virtus,  virtutis,  of  the  third  declension. 

7.  When  a  word  ends  in  b,  d,  1,  r,  or  t,  the  final  syllable  is 
generally  short. 

8.  When  a  word  ends  in  c  or  n,  the  last  syllable  is  generally 
long ;  but  words  like  carmen,  carnrinis,  have  the  en  short. 

2 


14:  '    LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


ACCENTUATION. 

9.  The  last  syllable  but  one  is  called  the  penult,  the  syllable 
before  it  the  antepenult. 

In  words  of  two  syllables,  the  accent  is  on  the  first  syllable : 
as,  homo.  In  words  of  three  or  more  syllables,  if  the  penult  is 
long,  it  is  accented;  if  the  penult  is  short  or  common,  the 
accent  is  on  the  antepenult :  as,  amicus,  Oceanus,  tenSbrae. 

Exc. — In  compounds  of  facio  in  which  the  vowel  is  not  changed,  and  in 
contracted  genitives  and  vocatives,  the  accent  remains  on  the  penult :  as, 
benefacis,  ingeni,  Vergili. 

10.  Monosyllables  have  the  circumflex  accent  (A)  if  the  vowel  is  long  by 
nature  ;  otherwise,  the  acute  accent  (') :  as,  os  (mouth ),  mos,  lex,  6s  (bone), 
vir,  dux.  The  accent  on  the  penult  is  a  circumflex,  if  the  vowel  be  long 
by  nature  and  the  last  syllable  short ;  otherwise,  an  acute :  as,  mater, 
inter,  amant.  The  antepenult,  if  accented,  takes  always  the  acute.  A 
syllable  having  the  circumflex  was  dwelt  upon  by  the  voice  longer  than 
one  which  has  only  the  acute.  The  accent  signs  are  not  used  (as  they  are 
in  Greek)  in  printing  and  writing  Latin. 

1.  The  sign  of  the  circumflex  is  sometimes  used  also  to  indicate  that  a 
vowel  is  long  (as  Roma,  abl.),  or  that  a  syllable  is  formed  by  contraction. 

2.  The  sign  of  the  grave  accent  is  sometimes  used  to  distinguish  certain 
particles  from  other  words  of  the  same  spelling  :  as,  quod,  "  because,"  or 
"that,"  from  quod,  "which." 

11.  The  Enclitics  (que,  ne,  ve,  etc.)  add  an  accent  to  the 
last  syllable  of  words  which  are  accented  on  the  antepenult,  as 
moeniaque,  periculave.  If  the  preceding  word  is  a  dissyllable, 
it  has  been  the  general  custom  in  England  and  America  to 
retain  the  accent  on  its  first  syllable  if  the  last  syllable  is 
short,  but  drop  that  accent  and  place  an  accent  on  the  last 
syllable  if  that  syllable  is  long,  or  becomes  long  by  position : 
as,  Romaque,  Romamque. 

1.  The  ancient  grammarians,  however,  always  place  an  accent  on  the 
syllable  preceding  the  enclitic :  as,  nuhtmet,  musaque,  musaque  ;  except 
when  the  proper  meaning  of  the  enclitic  is  lost  or  obscured,  when  it  is 

r  r 

treated  as  a  part  of  the  word  :  as,  itaque,  therefore;  but  Ttaque,  and  so. 

r  r 

Yet  they  said  utraque  and  pleraque,  to  keep  the  accent  of  the  masculine. 


PARTS  OF  SPEECH.— GENDER.  15 

2.  The  enclitic  may  aid  in  giving  length  by  position,  as  in  the  second 
syllable  of  virumque. 

3.  The  enclitics  are  que,  ne,  ve,  met,  ce,  pte,  dum,  quando,  inde. 

PARTS   OF  SPEECH. 

12.  The  parts  of  speech  may  be  grouped  in  three  classes :  Nouns,  includ- 
ing the  Noun,  Adjective,  and  Pronoun  ;  Verbs,  including  the  Finite  Verb, 
Infinitives  or  Verbal  Nouns,  and  Participles  or  Verbal  Adjectives;  and 
Particles,  including  the  Adverb,  the  Preposition,  the  Conjunction,  and 
the  Interjection. 

1.  Nouns,  Adjectives,  Pronouns,  and  Verbs  undergo  changes  in  their 
terminations,  called  Inflection.  Thus  from  the  stem  Q  15)  mulier,  we 
have  mulier-is,  woman4 's;  mulier-es,  women;  mulier-um,  women's;  from 
the  stem  ama,  ama-t,  love-s;  ama-sti,  love-dst;  ama-tus,  love-d;  ama-ns, 
lov-ing. 

The  inflection  of  Nouns,  Adjectives,  and  Pronouns  is  called  Declension; 
that  of  Verbs,  Conjugation. 

GENDER. 

13.  I.  By  natural  gender  the  names  and  titles  of  male  beings 
are  masculine ;  those  of  female  beings,  feminine :  as,  mascu- 
line, Cato ;  vir,  a  man ;  consul ;  aries,  a  ram ;  and  feminine, 
Julia ;  mulier,  a  woman ;  nutrix,  a  nurse ;  vacca,  a  cow. 

1.  Many  nouns  denote  both  the  male  and  the  female,  and 
are  therefore  called  common :  as,  sacerdos,  priest  or  priestess. 
These  are  for  the  most  part  really  adjectives. 

2.  Often  the  male  and  female  are  distinguished  by  different 
terminations :  as,  equus,  horse ;  equa,  mare. 

3.  Sometimes  the  natural  gender  of  animals  is  forgotten  for 
a  fanciful  gender.     Thus  anas,  duck,  aquYla,  eagle,  vulpes,/o#, 
are  feminine ;  corvus,  raven,  passer,  sparrow,  piscYs,  fish,  are 
masculine.     Such  nouns  are  called  epicene,  i.  e.,  common  to 
both  genders.     If  the  real  gender  is  to  be  denoted,  the  words 
mas  or  masculus,  male,  or  femYna,  female,  are  added. 

II.  Grammatical  gender  is  determined  partly  by  the  mean- 
ing, partly  by  the  termination. 

1.  Months,  winds,  and  rivers  are  generally  masculine. 

The  names  of  the  months  are  really  adjectives,  agreeing  with  mensis 
(month),  understood. 


16  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

2.  Countries,  islands,  and  trees  are  generally  feminine. 

3.  Nouns  undeclined,  as  fas,  right;  other  parts  of  speech, 
used  for  the  time  as  nouns,  as  scire  tuum,  thy  knowledge ;  hoc 
ipsum  diU,  this  very  word  "  diu;"  sentences  used  as  nouns ;  and 
the  produce  of  trees,  are  generally  neuter. 

Exceptions.— 1.  The  following  names  of  rivers  are  feminine :  Allia, 
Albula,  Matrona,  Styx,  and  Lethe. 

2.  Names  of  countries   ending  in  -urn  or  -a  (plur.)  are    neuter :  as, 
Latium,  Bactra. 

Pontus,  Hellespont's,  Isthmus,  are  masculine. 

3.  Names  of  trees  in  -er  and  -ur  of  the  third  declension  are  neuter :  as, 
siler,  a;i  osier ;  robur,  an  oak;  those  in  -er,  of  the  second  declension,  are 
usually  masculine,  as  are  also  many  of  those  in  -us. 

NUMBERS   AND   CASES. 

14.  There  are  in  Latin  two  numbers,  the  Singular  and 
Plural ;  and  six  cases,  viz. : 

The  Nominative,  which  names  the  subject  of  the  verb,  answer- 
ing the  question,  Who  ?  or  What  ?  As,  QuTs  dedit  ?  who  gave? 
VTr,  a  man. 

The  Genitive,  the  case  of  possession  or  connection,  answering 
the  question,  Whose?  or  Whereof?  As,  Cujus  donum?  whose 
gift  f  VTrT,  a  man's. 

The  Dative,  the  case  of  remoter  object,  or  personal  interest, 
answering  the  question,  To  whom  or  what?  For  wrhom  or 
what?  As,  CuT  datum?  To  whom  given?  VTro,  to  a  man. 

The  Accusative,  the  case  of  direct  object,  answering  the 
question,  Whom?  What?  As,  Quern  video?  Whom  see  If 
VTrum,  A  man.  It  may  also  answer  the  questions,  To  what 
place  ?  During  what  time  ?  How  far  ? 

The  Vocative,  the  case  of  direct  address.  As,  VTr,  0  man  ! 
or  Thou  man  ! 

The  Ablative,  which  denotes  means,  source,  circumstances, 
translated  by  the  prepositions  with,  in,  from,  by,  at,  etc.,  and 
answering  the  questions,  Wherewith  ?  Whence  ?  When  ?  By, 
with,  etc.,  whom  or  what  ?  As,  A  quo  datum  ?  By  whom  given  f 
A  viro,  By  a  man. 


ROOTS  AND  STEMS.-DECLENSION  OF  NOUNS.       17 

1.  A  seventh  case,  the  Locative,  is  still  found  in  a  few  words :  as,  do  ml, 
in  the  hovise,  at  home ;  hum!,  on  the  ground. 

2.  The  Sanskrit  has  also  an  eighth  case,  the  Instrumental. 

3.  The  Nominative  and  Vocative  are  called  independent  cases;  the 
other  four,  dependent  or  oblique. 

ROOTS  AND   STEMS. 

15.  The  endings  of  declension  and  conjugation  are  attached 
to  the  Stem,  which  is  the  fundamental  part  of  the  word. 

1.  The  Stem  of  a  Noun  is  usually  seen  on  casting  off  -rum  or 
-um  from  the  Genitive  Plural:  as,  mensa-,  domino-,  leon-, 
mari-,  gradu-,  die-. 

2.  The  Stem  of  a  Verb  is  shown  in  the  Imperative  Mood :  as,  ama-, 
audi-,  mone.    But  in  the  Third  Conjugation  -e  is  cast  off  (for  convenience) : 
as,  reg- ;  and  in  a  Deponent  Verb  -re  or  -ere :  as,  fa-,  re-,  lab-. 

16.  The  Root  (which  is  always  a  monosyllable)  is  that  part 
which  a  word  has  in  common  with  kindred  words.     Thus  in  the 
noun  static,  standing,  station-  is  the  Stem,  but  sta-  (origi- 
nally sta,  sometimes  sta)  is  the  Root,  as  may  be  seen  by  com- 
paring sta-re,  sta-tuo,  sta-men,  sta-tura,  statim,  to  stand, 
stablish,  standing-thread  (i.  e.,  warp),  standing-height,  instantly. 
A  root  may  be  used  as  a  stem,  or  the  stem  may  contain  the 
root  with  alterations  or  additions. 

DECLENSION   OF   NOUNS. 

17.  Latin  nouns  have  five  Declensions,  known  by  the  end- 
ings of  their  Genitives : 

I.  II.  III.  IV.          V. 

GEN.  SING,      ae          T  is  us        ei 

GEN.  PLUR.    arum     orum     um  or  Turn     uum     erum 

1.  In  Neuter  Nouns  the  Nominative,  Accusative,  and  Voca- 
tive are  the  same  in  each  Number,  severally ;  and  in  the  Plural 
they  end  in  a. 

2.  The  Vocative  of  Latin  words  is  the  same  as  the  Nomina- 
tive, except  in  the  Singular  of  the  Second  Declension. 

3.  The  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural  are  always  the  same. 

2*  B 


18 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


18.  Table  of  Endings  of  Latin  Nouns  in  the  Five  Declensions, 


Singular. 

I. 

U. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

NOM.  a 

us,  er,  ir,  um 

(various  endings.) 

us           u 

is 

GEN.  se 

T                I 

18 

us        us   u 

SI 

DAT.  ae 

0                       0 

i 

ul       u  (uT) 

eT 

Ace.  am 

um                um 

em,  im  (neut.  like 

w                  — 

um      u 

em 

nom.) 

Voc.  a 

e  (T),  er,  ir,  um 

like  nom. 

us       u 

is 

ABL.  a 

0                            0 

e,T 

u         u 

i 

(Loc.)a(dl) 

I                    I 

*»* 

Plural. 


NOM.  83 

_                        v 

is  (Is),  a,  ia 

us                ua 

is 

GEN.  arum 

orum  orum 

um,  ium 

uum             uum  erum 

DAT.  Is  (abus) 

18             IS 

ibus                       ibus  (ubus)  ibus 

ibus 

Ace.  as 

os           a 

is  (is),  a,  ia 

—                                                 w 

us                ua 

is 

VOC.   83 

I            a 

like  nom. 

us                 ua 

is 

ABL.  Is  fabus) 

Is           is 

ibus 

ibus  (ubus)  ibus 

ebSs 

(Loc.)  u 

is           Is 

THE   FIRST   DECLENSION. 
A-  STEMS. 

19.  The  First  Declension  contains  Latin  Nouns,  mostly 
Feminine,  with  Nominative  in  a;  and  a  few  Greek  words, 
chiefly  Proper  Names,  in  as,  es,  Masculine,  and  e  Feminine. 

Those  hi  a  are  thus  declined : 


Singular. 

NOM.  mensa,  a  table. 
(JEN.  mensae,  of  a  table. 
DAT.  mensae,  to  or  for  a  table. 
Ace.  mensam,  a  table. 
Voo.  mensa,  0  table  or  thou 

table! 
ABL.  mensa,  by,  with,  or  from 

a  table. 


Plural. 

mensae,  tables. 
mensarum,  of  tables. 
mensis,  to  or  for  tables. 
mensas,  tables. 
mensae,  O  tables  or  ye  tables ! 

mensis,  by,  with,  or  from  tables. 


Note.— As  there  is  no  Article  in  Latin,  mensa  may  be  translated  table, 
table,  or  the  table,  according  to  the  context. 


THE  FIRST  DECLENSION.  19 

1.  In  this  way  are  declined  also  the  adjectives  and  participles 
in  a  (fern.):  as,  magna,  great;  picta,  painted;  mensa  ro- 
tunda, a  round  table;  mensae  rotundae,  of  a  round  table. 

2.  An  old  genitive  and  dative  in  al  are  sometimes  found  in  inscriptions 
and  in  the  poets :  as,  aulai,  of  a  hall ;  aquai,  of  water. 

3.  An  old  genitive  in  as  remains  in  pater  familias,  the  father  of  a  fam- 
ily;  mater  fanulias,  films  fanulias. 

4.  The  genitive  plural  is  found  in  -um  rather  than  -arum  in  (1)  patro- 
nymics in  -des,  as,  Aeneades,  Aeneadum ;    (2)  many  names  of  tribes  or 
people,  as  Lapithae,  LapYthum;  (3)  compounds  of  col-  or  gen-,  in  poetry, 
as  caelicola,  caelicolum,  temgena,  ternfgenum ;  (4)  and  in  amphorum, 
from  amphora,  and  drachmum,  from  drachma,  when  used  with  numerals : 
as,  terna  millia  amphorum,  3000  amphors ;  mille  drachmum,  a  thousand 
drachms. 

5.  The  locative  case  of  militia  and  names  of  towns  ends  in  the  singular 
in  ae  (for  al),  in  the  plural  in  Is :  as,  mlltttae,  at  the  wars;  Romae,  at- 
Rome;  Athenls,  at  Athens. 

6.  The  dative  and  ablative  plural  of  dea,  goddess,  and  f  ilia, 
daughter,  end  often  in  -abus,  to  distinguish  them  from  the  like 
cases  of  corresponding  masculine  names  of  the  second  declen- 
sion.    So  sometimes  nata,  anima,  liberta,   conserva,  do- 
mma,  era,  mima,  nympha,  asina,  equa,  mula. 

7.  Stems  in  -ia  sometimes  have  -Is  in  the  dative  and  ablative  plural 
instead  of  -tls.    Thus  gratfis,  for  thanks,  is  ordinarily  written  gratis. 

8.  The  exceptions  to  the  rule  that  Latin  nouns  of  the  first 
declension  are  feminine  are  mostly  from  natural  gender  ;  thus 
agricola,  a  farmer,  nauta,  a  sailor,  are  masculine.     Names  of 
rivers  in  a  are  masculine,  according  to  the  general  rule;  but 
AIM,    Albula,   and  Matrona    are   feminine.     Hadria,  the 
Adriatic  Sea,  is  masculine. 


20.  GREEK  NOUNS. 

Aeneas,  m.  Anchlses,  m.  Cybele,  f. 

NOM.  Aeneas,  Anchlses,  Cybele, 

GEN.    Aeneae,  Anchisae,  Cybgles  or  Cybelae, 

DAT.    Aeneae,  Anchisae,  Cybelae, 

Ace.   Aenean  or  Aeneam,  Anchlsen  or  Anchlsam,  Cybelen 

Voc.    Aenea,  Anchise  or  Anchisa  (a),  Cybele, 

ABL.    Aenea.  Anchisa.  Cybele  or  Cybela. 


20  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

1.  The  plural  of  Greek  nouns  of  the  first  declension,  when  used,  follows 
that  of  mensa. 

THE  SECOND   DECLENSION. 
O-  STEMS. 

21.  The  Second  Declension  contains  Latin  Nouns  in  us,  er, 
and  ir,  mostly  Masculine,  and  um,  Neuter,  and  Greek  Nouns 
in  os,  Masculine,  and  on,  Neuter. 

1.  The  nominative  adds  a  or  m  to  the  stem,  the  characteristic  o  being 
generally  weakened  to  5. 

2.  Some  stems  in  -ero  drop  o,  rejecting  8  :  as,  puer  for  pueros,  tener  for 
teneros  ;  and  stems  in  which  -ro  follows  a  mute  or  f,  drop  o,  reject  s,  and 
insert  e  before  r  ;  as,  magister  for  magistrds,  niger  for  nigrds. 

Dominus,  a  lord,  m. 

Singular.  Plural. 

NOM.  donrinus,  lord.  dtimini,  lords. 

GEN.   dominl,  of  a  lord.  d6min6ruin,  of  lords. 

DAT.  d&mino,  to  or  for  a  lord.  dSminis,  to  or/or  lords. 

Ace.    dfaninum,  lord.  dSramos,  lords. 

Voc.   doming,  O  lord.  ddmini,  O  lords. 

ABL.   dtimino,  6?/,  with,  or  from  dftminis,  6z/,  with,  or  from  lords. 

a  lord. 

Puer,  a  boy,  m. 

NOM.  piigr,  boy.  piiSrT,  boys. 

GEX.  piigri,  of  a  boy.  puSroruxn,  of  boys. 

DAT.  pti^ro,  to  or  for  a  boy.  ptigrls,  to  or  for  boys. 

Ace.   pu^rum,  boy.  piierSs,  boys. 

Voc.  pti^r,  O  boy.  pti£ri,  O  boys. 

ABL.  ptiSro,  by,  with,  or  from  pftgris,  by,  with,  or  from  boys. 

a  boy. 


Ager,  a  field,  m.  Vir,  a  Tjwm,  m. 

Singular.  Plural.  Singular.  Plural. 

NOM.  Sg&r,  agri,  vir,  vlri, 

GEN.  agri,  agrorum,  viri,  virorum, 

DAT.  agro,  ^grls,  viro,  viris, 

Ace.  agrum,  agros,  virum,  viros, 

Voc.  age"r,  agri,  vir,  viri, 

ABL.  agro.  Sgris.  viro.  viris. 


THE  SECOND  DECLENSION.  21 

Filius,  a  son,  m.  Bellum,  war,  n. 

Singular.  Plural.  Singular.  Plural. 

NOM.  filius,  filii,  bellum,  bella, 

GEN.  fill  or  filii,  f  iliorum,  belli,  bellorum, 

DAT.  filio,  filiis,  bello,  bellis, 

Ace.  filium,  filids,  bellum,  bella, 

Yoo.  fill,  filii,  bellum,  bella, 

ABL.  filio.  filiis.  bello.  bellis. 

22.  For  the  sake  of  brevity,  the  declension  of  neuters  may  be 
given  as  follows : 

Singular.  Plural. 

NOM.,  AGO.,  and  Voo.  bellum,  bella, 

GEN.  belli,  bellorum, 

DAT.  and  ABL.  bello.  bellis. 

23.  The  masculine  form  in  us  of  adjectives  and  participles 
of  the  second  declension  is  declined  like  dominus,  the  neuter 
in  urn  like  bellum  ;  the  masculine  of  most  adjectives  in  er  of 
the  second  declension  is  declined  like  ager,  that  of  the  rest  like 
puer.    Thus  horridus  (masc.),  horridum  (neut.),  dreadful; 
piger  (masc.),  pigrum  (neut.),  lazy;  miser  (masc.),  miserum 
(neut. ),  wretched;  horrida  bella,  dreadful  wars;  pueris  pigris, 
to  lazy  boys;  domml  miseri,  of  a  wretched  lord. 

Note. — The  masc.  of  the  adj.  satur,/wW,  is  the  only  word  in  the  second 
declension  ending  in  -5r. 

1.  Like    puer  are    declined  (1)  adulter,    gener,    Liber, 
liberi  (children),  socer,  vesper,  sometimes   Mulciber;   (2) 
words  ending  in  fer  and  ger  from  fero  and  gero :  as,  si- 
gnifer,  armiger  ;  (3)  Celtiberi  and  Iberi  (plural). 

2.  The  endings  6s,  6m,  were  used  even  to  the  Augustan  age 
after  v,  u,  qu :  as,  servos,  equos  (or  ecus). 

3.  Proper  names  in  -liis,  also  f  ilius,  son,  and  genius,/cwiifo'ar 
spirit,  contract  the  vocative  into  I :  as,  Claudi,  VergilT.     So 
meus,  ray,  in  the  vocative  sing,  masc.,  as  mi  fill,  my  son. 

PompeT  ( 0  Pompeius)  is  further  contracted  by  Horace  into  PompeT ; 
so  VulteT,  O  Vulteius. 

Foreign  proper  names  in  Tus  do  not  contract  the  vocative :  as,  DarTe,  O 
Darius! 


22  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

4.  The  genitive  singular  of  nouns  having  -ms,  -mm  in  the 
nominative,  was  contracted  into  i  till  the  Augustan  age,  and 
is  so  written  by  Vergil  (except  in  two  instances)  and  Horace. 

Propertius  and  Ovid  are  the  first  who  wrote  constantly  ii,  which  then 
became  the  usual  form :  but  Manilius,  Persius,  and  Martial  prefer  i. 

5.  The  genitive  plural  in  urn  for  orum  appears  in  (1)  names  of  coins, 
weights,  measures,  and  trades :   nummus,  sestertius,  medimnus,  modius, 
talentum,  jugerum,  stadium,  faber :  so  denum  talentum,  praefectus  fabrum, 
(fabrorum  is  also  found) ;  (2)  in  some  names  of  people :  Arglvum  (6m), 
of  the  Argive* ;  Danaum,  of  the  Danaans.    Poets  often  use  it  in  words  of 
short  penult,  and  in  numeral  and  compound  adjectives;  as,  vlirum,  for 
virorum ;  magnannnum  Eutulum. 

6.  A  contracted  dative  and  ablative  plural  is  found;  as,  Grals,  from 
Grams ;  dis,  from  deus. 

7.  Pelagus,  sea,  virus,  poison,  being  neuter,  have  ace.  and  voc.  the  same 
as  the  nom.    Vulgus,  common  people,  is  generally  neuter,  but  sometimes 
masculine.    Pelagus  has  a  Greek  plural,  pelage ;  virus  and  vulgus  have 
no  plural. 

8.  The  locative  form  in  the  second  declension  ends  in  the  singular  in  I, 
in  the  plural  in  Is:  as,  belli,  at  war;  huml,  on  the  ground;  vesperl,  at 
evening;  Corinthi,  at  Corinth;  Veils,  at  Veii. 

9.  Deus,  a  grod,  is  thus  declined  : 

Singular.  Plural. 

NOM.  deus,  del,  dti,  or  df, 

GEN.  del,  deorum, 

DAT.  deo,  dels,  dns,  or  dis, 

Ace.   deum,  deos, 

Yoc.  deiis,  del,  dn,  or  di, 

ABL.  deo.  dels,  diis,  or  dis. 

Note.— In  poetry,  and  in  solemn  religious  forms  (as  treaties,  etc.),  the 
voc.  sing,  of  other  words  in  -us  is  sometimes  like  the  nominative :  as,  audl 
tu,  populus  Albanus,  h  ear  thou,  people  of  Alba  ! 

24.  Exceptions  in  Gender.— Names  of  tovrns,  and  many  names  of  trees, 
plants,  and  gems  are  feminine :  as,  Corinthus,  Corinth :  populus,  a  poplar 
tree ;  smaragdus,  an  emerald.  Feminine  also  are  alvus,  paunch ;  colus, 
distaff;  humus,  ground,  and  vannus,  a  winnowing-fan :  and  some  Greek 
words,  of  which  the  most  frequent  are  Arctus  (os),  the  Great  Bear ;  ato- 
mus,  an  atom ;  carbasus,  fine  flax,  a  linen  curtain,  etc.  (the  pi.  carbasa  is 
neuter) ;  dialectus,  dialect,  and  pharus,  light-house.  For  the  neuter, 
see  g  28,  7, 


THE  THIRD  DECLENSION.  23 

25.  GREEK  NOUNS. 

Delos,  f.  Androgeos,  m.        Ilion  (or  Ilium),  n. 

NOM.  Delos,  Andr6g6os,  Ilion, 

GEN.   Deli,  Andrdggo  or  T,  Illi, 

DAT.  Delo,  Audr6g6o,  IHo, 

Ace.    Delon  or  Delunx,  Andr6geo  or  on,  Ilion, 

Voc.  Dele,  Andrftgeos,  Ilion, 

ABL.  Delo.  AndrOgeo.  Itto. 

1.  The  Greek  genitive  plural  on  is  sometimes  found  :  as,  Georgtcon,  of 
the  Georgics ;  PhTlaenon,  of  the  Philceni.  Other  plural  forms  are  the  same 
as  in  Latin  nouns. 

THE   THIRD   DECLENSION. 
26.  CONSONANT  STEMS  AND  I-  STEMS. 

1.  The  Consonant-Nouns,  with  few  exceptions,  have  more 
syllables  in  the  Genitive  than  hi  the  Nominative  Singular. 
Nouns  thus  increasing  in  the  Genitive  are  called  Imparisyl- 
lables. 

2.  The  I-  Nouns  have,  for  the  most  part,  the  same  number 
of  syllables  in  the  Genitive  as  in  the  Nominative.     Nouns  not 
increasing  in  the  Genitive  are  called  Parisyllables. 

3.  In  the  consonant  stems  the  final  stem  consonant  is  in  most  cases  pre- 
ceded by  a  vowel,  and  this  vowel  is  generally  short. 

4.  A  very  large  proportion  of  the  i-  stems  have  the  syllable  which  pre- 
cedes the  i  long. 

5.  Most  of  the  i-  nouns  have  not  more  than  two  syllables  in  the  genitive 
singular. 

CONSONANT  NOUNS. 
Judex,  c.,  a  judge. 

Singular.  Plural. 

NOM.  judex,*  a  judge.  judices ,  judges. 

GEN.  judicis,  of  a  judge.  judicum,  of  judges. 

DAT.  jtidici,  to  or  for  a  judge.  judicibus,  to  or /or  jitdges. 

AGO.  judicem,  a  judge.  judices,  judges. 

Voc.  jtidex,  thou  judge.  judices,  0  judges,  or  ye  judges. 
ABL.  judice,  by,  with,  or/rora  a     judicibus,   by,  with,  or  from 

judge.  judges. 

*  x  standing  for  OS. 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


Bex,  m., 

Aetas,  f., 

Comes,  c., 

Pes,  m., 

a  king. 

age.                a 

companion. 

afoot. 

Singular. 

NOM.  rex, 

aetas, 

comes, 

pes, 

GEN.  regis, 

aetatis, 

comitis, 

pedis, 

DAT.  regi, 

aetati, 

c6miti, 

pedi, 

Ace.   reggm, 

aetatem, 

cSmitem, 

pedem, 

Voc.  rex, 

aetas, 

comfes, 

pes, 

ABL.  reg§. 

aetate. 

c6mit§. 

pede. 

Plural. 

NOM.  reges, 

aetates, 

comites, 

pSdes, 

GEN.  regum, 

aetatum  (ium), 

comitum, 

pedum, 

DAT.  regibus, 

aetatibus, 

comitibus, 

pedibus, 

Ace.  reges, 

aetates, 

comites, 

pedes, 

Voc.  reges, 

1    aetates  (is), 

comites, 

p&des, 

ABL.  regibus. 

aetatibus. 

comitibus. 

pedibus. 

Princeps,  c., 

Leo,  m., 

Virgo,  f., 

Pater,  m., 

a  chief. 

a  lion. 

a  virgin. 

a  father. 

Singular. 

NOM.  princeps, 

1S6, 

virgo, 

pater, 

GEN.  principis, 

ISonis, 

virginis, 

patris, 

DAT.  principi, 

leODl, 

virgin!, 

p§tri, 

Ace.  principem, 

leonem, 

virginem, 

patrem, 

Voc.  princeps, 

l£o, 

virgo, 

pat€r, 

ABL.  principS. 

l£6n§. 

virginS. 

pStre. 

Plural. 

NOM.  principes, 

166nes, 

virgines, 

pStres, 

GEN.  principum, 

l^onum, 

virginum, 

patrum, 

DAT.  principibus, 

leonibiis, 

virginibus, 

pStribus, 

Ace.  principes, 

leones, 

virgines, 

patres, 

Voc.  principes, 

ISones, 

virgines, 

patres, 

ABL.  principibus. 

ISonibus. 

virginibus. 

pStribus. 

THE  THIRD  DECLENSION. 


25 


Caput,  n., 

Nomen,  n., 

Opus,  n., 

Corpus,  n., 

a  head. 

a  name. 

work. 

a  body. 

Singular. 

NOM.  caput, 

nomen, 

opiis, 

corpus, 

GEN.  capitis, 

nominis, 

operis, 

corporis, 

DAT.  capiti, 

noraini, 

opSri, 

corpftri, 

Ace.  capiit, 

nom&n, 

opiis, 

corpus, 

Voo.  capiit, 

nomen, 

opiis, 

corpus, 

ABL.  capite. 

nomine. 

5pere. 

corpore. 

Plural. 

NOM.  capita, 

nomina, 

5pera, 

corpora, 

GEN.  capitum, 

nominum, 

Sperum, 

corporum, 

DAT.  capitibus, 

nominibus, 

operibus, 

corpoiibus, 

Aoc.  capita, 

nomina, 

opera, 

corpora, 

Voc.  capita, 

nomina, 

5pera, 

corpora, 

ABL.  capitibus. 

nominibus. 

operibus. 

corporibus. 

Note. — For  the  sake  of  brevity,  the  declension  of  neuters 
may  be  given  as  follows : 


Singular. 

.,  Aco.,  and  Voo.  capiit, 
GEN.  capitis, 

DAT.  capiti, 

ABL.  capite. 


Plural. 

NOM.,  Ace.,  and  Voc.  capita, 
GEN.  capitum, 

DAT.  and  ABL.  capitibus. 


1-  NOUNS. 

Tussis,  f., 

Clavis,  f., 

Imber,  m., 

a  cough. 

a  key. 

a  shower. 

Singular. 

NOM.  tussis, 

clavis, 

imber, 

GEN.  tussis, 

clavis, 

imbris, 

DAT.  tussT, 

clavi, 

imbri, 

Aco.  tussim, 

clavem  or  clavim, 

imbrem, 

Voc.  tussis, 

clavis, 

imber, 

ABL.  tussi. 

clave  or  clavi. 

imbre  or  imbri. 

3 

26 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


NOM.  tusses, 
GEN.  tussiuxn, 
DAT.  tussibus, 
Ace.  tusses  (is), 
Voc.  tusses, 
ABL.  tussibus. 


Plural. 

claves, 

clavium, 

clavibiis, 

claves  (is), 

claves, 

clavibus. 


imbres, 

imbrium, 

imbribus, 

imbres  (is), 

imbres, 

imbribus. 


Ovis,  f., 

a  sheep. 


.  6vTs, 
GKN.  6vis, 
DAT.  6vi, 
Ace.  6v§m, 
Voc.  ovis, 
ABL.  6ve. 


Nubes,  f., 
a  cloud. 

Singular. 

nubes, 

nubis, 

nubi, 

nubem, 

nubes, 

nube. 


Dens,  m., 
a  tooth. 

dens, 

dentis, 

denti, 

dentem, 

dens, 

dent§. 


.  6ves, 
GEN.  6vium, 
DAT.  5vibus, 
Ace.  Sves  or  6vis, 
Voc.  6ves, 
ABL.  6vibus. 


Plural. 

nubes, 

nubiiiin, 

nubibus, 

nubes  or  nubis, 

nubes, 

nubibus. 


dentes, 

dentium, 

dentibiis, 

dentes  or  dentis, 

dentes, 

dentibiis. 


Rete,  n.f 
a  net. 

NOM.  rete, 
GEN.  retis, 
DAT.  retT, 
Aco.  rete, 
Voo.  rete, 
ABL.  reti  (e). 


Animal,  n., 
an  animal. 


Singular. 


animal  is, 

Snimali, 

animSl, 

animal, 

animali. 


Mare,  n., 
the  sea. 

mare, 

maris, 

mari, 

mare, 

mir§, 

mari  (e). 


6s,  n., 

a  bone. 

6s,  _ 

OSS1S, 


6s, 
6s, 


THE  THIRD  DECLENSION.  27 

Plural. 


NOM.  retia, 

Snimalia, 

maria, 

ossa, 

GEN.  retium, 

animalium, 

marium, 

ossium, 

DAT.  retibus, 

animalibus, 

maribus, 

ossibus, 

Aco.  retia, 

animalia, 

maria, 

ossa, 

Voo.  retia, 

animalia, 

maria, 

ossa, 

ABL.  retibus.  ammalibus.  maribus.  ossibus. 

27.  For  the  sake  of  brevity,  the  declension  of  neuters  may  be 
given  as  follows : 

Singular. 

NOM.,  Aco.,  Voc.  5s,  animal,  mare, 

GEN.  ossis,  Smmalis,  marls, 

DAT.  ossT,  ammali,  mSr!, 

ABL.  oss§.  ammali.  mari  (e). 

Plural. 

NOM.,  Aoo.,  Voo.  ossa,  animalia,  maria, 

GEN.  ossium,  animalium,  marium, 

DAT.,  ABL.  ossibus.  ammalibus.  maribus. 

28.  Adjectives  and  participles  of  the  third  declension  are 
declined  like  nouns  of  similar  terminations  :  as,  felix,  felicis, 
happy;  amans,  amantis,  loving;  puerisf§licibus,/or happy 
boys;  patris  amantis,  of  a  loving  father. 

29.  CASE  TERMINATIONS. 

I.  The  nominative  singular  in  masculine  and  feminine 
nouns  of  the  third  declension,  except  liquids,  regularly  adds 
s  to  the  stem  ;  but  various  modifications  are  introduced. 

II.  The  terminations  of  the  genitive  singular  in  the 
third  declension  are  as  follows  : 

1.  Nouns  in  a  have  their  genitive  in  atis:   as,   poema, 
poematis,  a  poem.     These  nouns  are  neuter,  and  from  the 
Greek. 

2.  Nouns  in  e  change  e  into  is :  as,  sedUe,  sedilis,  a  seat. 

3.  The  nouns  in  i  are  Greek  neuters.    They  are  generally  indeclinable, 
but  some  have  the  regular  genitive  in  is.    The  compounds  of  meli,  honey, 
have  their  genitive  in  Ttis  :  as,  hydromeli,  hydromelitis,  mead. 

4.  Nouns    in  o  have    their   genitive  in  onis :   as,  pavo, 
pavonis,  a  peacock. 


28  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

Exc.  1. — Nouns  in  do  and  go  have  their  genitive  in  tnis  :  as,  hirnndo, 
blrundinis,  a  swallow;  imago,  imaginis,  a  likeness. 

Exc.  2. — Homo,  a  man;  nemo,  720 man;  turbo,  a  whirlwind;  and  Apollo 
also  have  their  genitive  in  tnis. 

Exc.  3.— The  following  nouns  in  do  and  go  have  their  genitive  in  onis ; 
praedo,  cudo,  ndo,  ligo,  mango,  spado,  harpago,  comedo,  unedo. 

Exc.  4. — The  names  of  peoples  in  o  have  generally  onis  in  the  genitive : 
as,  Macedo,  Macedonis.  But  o  is  long  in  lones,  Lacones,  Nasamones, 
Snessones,  and  Vettones. 

Exc.  5.— Caro,  flesh,  has  its  genitive  carais.  Anio,  the  name  of  a  river, 
has  Anienis ;  Nerio,  the  wife  of  Mars,  has  Nerienis. 

5.  Nouns  in  y  are  Greek  neuters,  and  form  their  genitive  by  adding  is, 
s,  or  os  :  as,  misy,  misyis  and  misys  or  misyos,  vitriol. 

6.  There  are  only  two  nouns  in  c,  viz. :  lac,  lactis,  and  alec,  alecis. 

7.  Nouns  in  1  add  is  in  the  genitive:  as,  sol,  soils,  the  sun. 
Note.— Mel,  honey,  and  fel,  poison,  double  the  1,  making  mellis,  fellis. 

8.  Nouns  in  en  have  their  genitive  in  mis:    as,  fluxnen, 
fluminis. 

9.  Nouns  in  en  add  is  in  the  genitive :  as,  ren,  renis,  kidney. 

10.  Nouns  in  r  add  is  in  the  genitive :  as,  calcar,  calcaris, 
a  spur ;  nectar,  nectaris,  nectar;  career,  carceris,  a  prison. 

Exc.  1.— Nouns  in  ter  drop  e  in  the  genitive :  as,  pater, 
patris,  fattier ;  so  also  imber,  a  shower,  and  names  of  months 
in  ber. 

But  later,  crater,  and  soter  retain  e. 

Exc.  2.— Lar  or  Lars  has  for  its  genitive  Lartis ;  far,  farris ;  hepar, 
hepatis ;  iter,  itineris  (from  an  old  nominative) ;  Jupiter,  Jovis. 

Exc.  3.— Ebur,  femur,  jecur,  and  robur  have  their  genitive  in  oris :  as, 
eboris ;  femur  has  also  femtnis,  and  jecur,  jecinoris,  jocinoris,  and 
jocineris. 

Note. — Most  nouns  in  or  have  oris :  as,  amor,  amoris,  love. 
But  arbor,  ador,  aequor,  manner,  and  the  adjective  memor 
have  oris.  Cor  has  cordis. 

11.  Nouns  in  as  have  their  genitive  in  atis:  as,  pietas, 
pietatis,  dutiful  affection. 

Exc.  1.— Anas  has  anatis ;  as,  assis ;  mas,  maris ;  vas  (a  surety),  vadis, 
vas  (a  ivssel],  vasis. 

Exc.  2.— Greek  masculines  have  antis  :  as,  Pallas,  the  name  of  a  war- 
rior, Pallantis ;  feminines,  adis,  as  Pallas,  a  name  of  Minerva,  Palladis ; 
and  neuters,  atis,  as,  artocreas,  artocreatis. 


GENITIVE  ENDINGS.  29 

Areas,  an  Arcadian,  and  No  mas,  a  Numidian,  have  adis.  Melas,  the 
name  of  a  river,  has  Melanis. 

12.  Nouns  in  es  have  their  genitive  in  is,  itis,  etis,  or  etis  : 
as,   rupes,  rupis,  a  rock;  miles,  militis,  a  soldier?  paries, 
parietis,  a,  wall ;  quies,  quietis,  rest. 

Exc.  1. — Obses,  praeses,  and  the  adjectives  deses  and  reses  have  idis ; 
pes  and  its  compounds  have  edis ;  heres  and  merces  have  edis. 

Exc.  2. — The  genitive  of  bes  is  bessis  ;  of  Ceres,  Cereris;  of  piibes  and 
impubes,  puberis  and  impuberis.  Caeres  has  Caerttis  and  Caeretis. 

13.  Nouns  in  is  have  their  genitive  the  same  as  the  nomina- 
tive :  as,  panis,  panis,  bread. 

Exc.  1.— The  following  have  idis :  cassis,  cuspis,  lapis,  and  the  Greek 
words  aegis  and  pyramis. 

Exc.  2.— The  following  have  Ttis :  Dis,  lis,  Quiris,  and  Samnis. 

Exc.  3.— Cinis  and  pulvis  have  eris :  as,  cineris,  Cucinnis  has  cucu- 
meris  and  cucumis. 

Exc.  4.— Glis  has  gliris;  pollis  (or  pollen),  pollinis  ;  sanguis  (or  san- 
guen),  sanguinis;  semis,  semissis. 

Note.— Greek  nouns  in  is  have  generally  is  or  idis  in  the  genitive. 
Charis  has  Charitis ;  Salamis,  SalamTnis  ;  Simois,  Simoentis. 

14.  Of  nouns  in  os,  some  have  otis :  as,  nepos,  nep5tis,  a 
grandson,  and  some  oris :  as,  flos,  floris,  a  flower. 

Exc. — Gustos  has  custodis ;  os,  ossis ;  bos,  bovis.  The  adjectives  com- 
pos and  impos  have  otis.  The  Greek  nouns  heros,  Minos,  and  Tros  have 
ois. 

15.  Nouns  in  us  have  their  genitive  in  eris  or  oris :  as, 
latus,  lateris,  side ;  nemus,  nemoris,  a  grove. 

Exc.  1. — Incus,  palus,  and  subscus  have  udis ;  pecus,  a  single  head  of 
cattle,  a  beast,  has  pecudis  (while  pecus,  pecoris  means  cattle  collectively) ; 
tellus  has  telluris,  and  Venus,  Veneris. 

Exc.  2. — Monosyllables  which  have  a  long  u  have  their  genitive  in 
uris ;  as,  crus,  the  leg.  Grus  and  sus  have  uis ;  the  adjective  vetus,  vete- 
ris ;  and  intercus,  intercutis. 

Exc.  3.— Some  Greek  proper  names  in  us  have  untis :  as,  Trapezus. 
Compounds  ending  in  pus  (wris)  have  podis  :  as,  tripus  and  (EdTpus  ;  but 
the  latter  is  sometimes,  and  polypus  always,  made  in  the  second  declension. 
Rhus  has  rhois  and  roris. 

16.  Greek  nouns  in  ys  have  the  genitive  in  yis,  contracted  ys,  or  in  the 
Greek  form  yos.    A  few,  as  chlamys,  have  ydis. 

17.  The  only  nouns  ending  in  aes  are  aes,  aeris,  and  praes,  praedis. 

3* 


30  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

18.  There  are  only  two  words  in  aus ;  laus,  landis,  and  fraus,  fraudis. 

• 

19.  Nouns  in  Is,  ns,  or  rs  have  their  genitive  in  tis :  as, 
puls,  pultis;  fons,  fontis;   pars,  partis.     Nouns  in  s,  bs, 
ms,  or  ps  have  their  genitive  in  is :  as,  urbs,  urbis ;  hiem(p)s, 
hiemis ;  stirps,  stirpis. 

Exc.  1. — Frons,  glans,  juglans,  lens,  and  libripens  have  dis  :  as,  fron- 
dis.  Tiryns  has  Tirynthis. 

Exc.  2. — Gryps  has  gryphis.  Compounds  in  ceps  (from  oapio)  have 
ipis,  as  princeps,  principis.  But  auceps  has  aucupis. 

Exc.  3. — Adjectives  in  ceps,  derived  from  caput,  have  their  genitive  in 
cipitis :  as,  anceps,  ancipitis. 

20.  Nouns  in  t  have  their  genitive  in  itis.    They  are  caput, 
capitis,  and  its  compounds,  occiput  and  sinciput. 

21.  Nouns  in  x  have  their  genitive  in  cis  or  gis  :   as,  vox, 
vdcis,  voice;  lex,  legis,  law. 

1.  Latin  nouns  in  ax  have  acis,  except  fax,  facis.    -Most  Greek  nouns 
in  ax  have  acis,  a  few  acis ;  Greek  names  of  men  in  nax  have  nactis ; 
as,  Astyanax,  Astyanactis. 

2.  Words  in  ex  generally  have  tcis :  as,  judex,  judicis ;  but  rex  and 
lex  have  egis ;  aqutlex,  grex,  and  >Lelex  have  egis ;  nex,  foenisex,  and 
the  obsolete  prex  have  ecis;  vervex  and  Myrmex,  ecis.    Eemex  has 
remigis :  senex,  senis ;  supellex,  snppe lie c tills. 

3.  Nouns  in  ix  have  Tcis,  less  frequently  icis.    Nix  has  nivis,  and 
strix,  strigis. 

4.  The  words  in  ox  have  ocis ;  but  Cappadox  and  the  adjective  praecox 
have  ocis.    Nox  has  noctis ;  Allobrox,  Allobrogis. 

5.  Crux,  dux,  nux,  and  the  adjective  trox  have  the  genitive  in  ucis; 
the  n  before  o  is  long  only  in  the  genitive  of  lux,  lucis,  and  Pollux, 
Pollucis.  Conjunx  (or  conjux)  has  conjugis ;  the  obsolete  frux  hasfrugis. 

6.  The  words  in  yx  are  Greek ;  the  genitive  may  be  ycis,  ycis,  ygis, 
ygis,  or  ychis. 

7.  Faex,  faecis  is  the  only  word  ending  in  aex;  the  only  word  in  aux  is 
faux,  faucis. 

III.  The  dative  singular  had  an  old  form  in  e,  retained  in  some  phrases. 

IV.  The  termination  -im  in  the   accusative  singular  is 
retained 

1.  Always  in  amussis,  buris,  ravis,  tussis,  cucumis,  sitis, 
vis,  and  the  adverb  partim  (originally  an  accusative) ; 

2.  For  the  most  part,  but  interchanging  with  -em,  in  febris, 
pelvis,  puppis,  restis,  securis,  turris ; 


CASE-ENDINGS.  31 

3.  Sometimes,  but  more   often  changed  to  -em,  in  clavis, 
navis,  and  sementis ; 

4.  In  some  Greek  nouns  and  names  of  rivers. 

V.  The  termination  -i  in  the  ablative  singular  is  retained. 

1.  In  nouns  which  have   -im  in  the  accusative  (rest!  is 
doubtful) ; 

2.  Often  in  amnis,  avis,  axis,  bilis,  bipennis,  canalis, 
civis,  fustis,  imber,  and  (in  certain  formulas)  in  ignis  ; 

3.  In  neuter  nouns  in  -e,  -rA,  and  -ar ;  with  the  exception  of 
jubar,  baccar,  and  nectar,  names  of  towns  ending  in  e,  and 
sometimes  mare  and  rete  ; 

4.  In  nouns  in  -is  (-alis,  -aris,  -His,  -ensis),  and  names  of 
months  in  -is,  -er,  which  were  originally  adjectives  ;  but  such 
nouns  often  (aedHis  generally),  and  proper  names  of  this  kind 
almost  always,  have  e.    Juvenis  has  always  juvene. 

VI.  The  pure  locative  in  -I  is  found  in  such  forms  as  orbi, 
ruri,  Lacedaemoni,  Tiburi. 

VII.  The  nominative  and  accusative  plural  of  neuter 
nouns  generally  end  in  a ;  but  nouns  in  e,  al,  and  ar,  have  ia. 

VIII.  A  nominative  plural  in  is  or  eis  occurs  sometimes  in  Plautus  and 
Lucretius. 

IX.  The  genitive  plural  in  ium  is  found 

1.  In  parisyllabic    nouns    in    -es  and    -is;   except  canis, 
juvenis,  mensis,  sedes,  strues,  suboles,  vates,  sometimes 
apis,  and  usually  volucris  ; 

2.  In  imber,  linter,  uter,  venter,  sequester,  Insuber  ; 

3.  In  gentile  nouns  in  -as  and  -is,  as  Arpmas,  Quiris  (but 
not  in  names  of  men  ;  thus,  Maecenatum,  of  Maecenases] ; 

4.  In  dos,  Us,  often  in  abstracts  in  -tas,  as  ci  vitas,  less 
frequently  in  abstracts  in  -tus,  as  virtus  ; 

5.  In  ars,  as,  dens,  nox,  os,  puls,  semis  ;  most  frequently 
in  original  participles  in  -ns,  as  parens,  sapiens  ;  in  fraus, 
frons,  laus  ;  rarely  in  compes,  palus  ; 

6.  In  arx,  falx,  faux,  merx ; 

7.  In  urbs,  stirps  ; 

8.  In  glis,  vis,  mas,  lar,  nix,  and  sometimes  in  lien,  mus, 
renes. 

X.  Some  plural  words  in  -alia,  -ilia,  -aria,  follow  the  second  declension 
in  their  genitive  plural :  as,  Compitali-orum ;  ancili-orum. 


32  LATiy  GRAMMAR. 


XI.  Xouns  which  have  -ium  in  the  genitive  plural  have  in  the 
classical  period  -is  as  well  as  -es  in  the  accusative  plural. 
A  still  older  form  in  -eis  occurs. 


30.  RULES  FOR  GENDER. 

1.  Concrete  nouns  in  -io  are  masculine ;    as,  scorpio,  a 
scorpion ;  pugio,  a  dagger. 

2.  Abstract  and  collective  nouns  in  -io  are  feminine;  as, 
ratio,  reason;  legio,  a  legion. 

3.  Nouns  in   -do  and  -go,  with  the  genitive  in  -inis,  are 
feminine  :  as,  magnitude,  greatness;  imago,  a  likeness. 

4.  Other  nouns  in    -o,   together  with    ordo,   cardo,   and 
margo,  are  masculine. 

•").  Xouns  in  -as  -atis,  -es  -etis,  -is  -itis,  -6s  -5tis,  -us 
-utis,  and  -us  -udis,  are  feminine. 

6.  Parisyllables  in  -es  are  feminine. 

7.  Parisyllables  in  -is  are  feminine.     But  the  following  are 
masculine  :  nouns  ending  in  -nis  ;  also  axis,  buris,  caulis, 
collis,  ensis,  fascis,  follis,  fustis,  mensis,  mugilis,  orbis, 
piscis,  postis,  sentis,  torris,  unguis,  vectis,  vermis. 

8.  Xouns  in  -is  -idis  are  feminine  ;  except  lapis,  masculine. 

9.  Nouns  in  -is  -eris,  and  -is  -inis  are  masculine. 

10.  Nouns  in  -es  -itis  are  masculine ;   except  merges, 
feminine. 

11.  Nouns  in  s  with  a  consonant  before  it  are  feminine ; 
except  dens,  fons,  mons,  and  pons,  which  are  masculine. 

12.  Nouns  in  x  are  feminine  ;  but  calix,  fornix,  grex,  and 
most  in  -ex  -icis  and  -ix  -icis  are  masculine. 

13.  Nouns  in  -6s  -oris,  -or  -oris,  -er  -ris  are  masculine. 

14.  Nouns  in  -er  -eris ;  -or  -oris  ;   -ur  -uris  and  oris ;  -us 
-eris  and    -oris ;    -us  -uris   (monosyllabic) ;  -al  -alis ;    -ar 
-aris  ;  -e  -is  ;  and  -en  -inis  are  neuter.    But  arbor  is  femi- 
nine ;  and  agger,  career,  furfur,  later,  and  pecten,  are 
masculine. 

15.  The  monosyllables  as,  mus,  ren,  sol,  and  sal,  are  mas- 
culine ;  fraus,  grus,  laus,  sus,  and  vis,  feminine ;   aes, 
cor,  far,  fel,  lac,  mel,  6s,  6s,  vas,  and  ver,  neuter. 

16.  Paries  and  pis  are  masculine ;   anas,  pecus,  seges, 
and  teges,  feminine  ;  and  caput,  neuter. 


THE  THIRD  DECLENSION. 


33 


Note  1.— Names  of  animals  with  neuter  terminations  are  masculine  :  as, 
lepus,  leporis,  a  hare. 

Note  2. — Nouns  derived  from  the  Greek  retain  their  original  gender. 
Note  3,— No  rules  of  this  kind  can  supersede  the  use  of  the  Lexicon. 


31.  NOUNS  IRREGULAR  IN  DECLENSION. 

Note.— The  stems  of  bos,  grus,  and  sus  end  in  u  (v).   So  the  stem  Jov  in 
Jupiter  (for  Jovpater). 


Bos,  m,or  f., 
ox  or  cow. 

.  bos, 
GEN.  boVfs, 
DAT.  bbVT, 
Ace.  bbVSm, 
Voc.  bos, 
ABL.  boVS. 


Jupiter,  m., 
Jupiter. 

Singular. 

JupttSr, 

JoVYs, 

JoVT, 

JbVem, 

Jupiter, 

Jove. 


Sus,  m.  or  f., 

a  swine. 

sus, 

sfiis, 

sttT, 

suem, 
sus, 


Plural. 


NOM. 

GEN. 

DAT.  bubus  or  bobfis, 

Ace.  bbVes, 

Yoc.  boves, 

ABL.  bubiis  or  bobus. 

VTs,  f., 

strength. 

NOM.  vis, 
GEN.  (vis,  rare), 
DAT.  (vT,  rare), 
Ace.  vim, 
Voc.  (wanting), 
ABL.  vi. 


Nix,  f., 
snow. 

Singular. 

,nix, 
nfvfs, 
ntvT, 
ntve'm, 
nix, 


sttes, 

suum, 

suibus  or  subus, 


sues, 

siffbvis  or  subtts. 

Senex,  c., 
old  man  or  woman. 

sSnex, 

senYs, 

sen!, 

sen^m, 

sSnex, 

sSne. 


34 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


NOM.  vires, 
GEN.  viriihn, 
DAT.  virtbtts, 
Ace.   vires, 
Voc.  vires, 
ABL.  vlrtbiis. 


Tethys,  f. 
NOM.  Tethys, 

GEN.  Tethyisor 

Tethyos, 
DAT.  Tethyi, 

Ace.  Tethymor 

Tethyn, 
Voc.  Tethy, 


Plural. 

ntves, 

ntvium, 

ntvtbiis, 

ntves, 

ntves, 

ntvtbiis. 

32.  GREEK  NOUNS. 

Atreus,  m.  Socrates,  m. 


Atreus, 

AtreT  (el)  or 

Atrgos, 
Atr6o  (eo), 

Atreum  or  Atrfia, 
Atreu, 


ABL.  Tethye. 


Atreo  (eo). 


Socrates, 

SocratT  or 
Socratis, 
SocrSti, 

SocrStem  or 
Socraten, 

Socrates  or 
Socrate, 

Socrate, 


Heros,  m., 

hero. 


Singular.' 
NOM.  heros, 
GEX.  herois, 
DAT.  heroT, 
Acc.  heroem 

or  heroa, 
Voc.  heros, 
ABL.  heroe. 


Plural, 
heroes, 
heroum, 

heroibus  (tsin), 
heroes,  -as, 

heroes, 
heroibus  (isin). 


TigrTs, 

a  tiger. 
Singular, 
tigris, 

tigrts  or  tigrtdts, 
tigrl  (tigridi), 
tigrim  or  tigrin, 


sSnes, 

s^ntlm, 

sentbfis, 

sSnes, 

senes, 

sSntbfis. 


AchiUes,  m. 
Achilles  or 

Achilleus, 
Achillis,  -I  or 

Achilleos,-el, 
AchillT  or 

AchilleT, 
Achillgm,  -en 

or  Achillea, 
Achille,-es  or 

Achilleu, 
Achille  or 

AchiUi. 


Plural, 
tigres, 
tigrium, 
tigribus, 
tigres  or  tigrtdas, 


tigris,  tigres, 

tigre  or  tigride.       tigribus. 
33.  Many  Greek  nouns  of  the  third  declension  prefer  the  gen.  in  -\ 
(as  of  the  secon  1  declension)  to  that  in  -is :  as,  Pericles,  gen.  PericlT  (rather 
than  Pencils). 

1.  The  Greek  gen.  in  -os,  the  ace.  in  -a,  the  nom.  plur.  in  es,  e,  and 
the  ace.  plur.  in  -as,  e,  are  often  preferred  to  the  Latin  terminations. 

2.  As  the  Greek  gen.  plur.  in  -on  is  sometimes  found  in  the  second  de- 
clension, so  is  that  in  -eon  in  the  third :  as,  Metamorphoseon,  of  the  Meta- 
morphoses. 

3.  In  poetry,  the  dat.  and  abl.  plur.  sometimes  end  in  -si,  before  vowels 
-stn. 


THE  FOURTH  DECLENSION. 


THE   FOURTH   DECLENSION. 

17-  STEMS. 

34.  Nouns  of  the  Fourth  Declension  end  in  us,  Masculine 
or  Feminine,  and  u,  Neuter.     They  are  thus  declined : 

Gradus,  m.,  a  step.  Genii,  n.,  knee. 

Singular.  Plural.  Singular.        Plural. 

NOM.  gradus,  gradus,  g8nu,  ggnua, 

GEN.  gradus,  graduum,  gSnus,  gSnuum, 

DAT.  gradui,  gr&dibus,  g&nu,  g&nibus, 

Ace.  graduxn,  gradus,  gSnu,  gSnua, 

Voc.  gradus,  gradus,  g8nu,  gSnua, 

ABL.  gradu.  gradibus.  ggnu.  genibus. 

1.  Several  nouns  of  this  declension  have  also  forms  belonging 
to  the  second :  as,  caestus,  abl.  plur.  caestibus  and  caestis. 

Domus,  a  house,  f.,  is  thus  declined: 

Singular.  Plural. 

NOM.  d5mus,  d5mus, 

GEN.  d5mus,  d5inuum  or  domorum, 

Loc.  domi  (rarely  dfonul), 

DAT.  d5muT  (rarely  d5m5),  domibus, 

Aoo.  domum,  d5mos  or  dSmus, 

Voo.  dSmus,  d5mus, 

ABL.  d5m5  (rarely  d5mu).  d6mibus. 

2.  Many  u  stems  in  the  earlier  Latin  had  the  genitive  singular  in  i :  as, 
senatus,  gen.  senatl. 

3.  The  dative  in  ui  is  often  contracted  into  u:  as,  parce 
metu,  Yerg. 

4.  The  dative  and  ablative  plural  in  ubus  is  retained  always 
by  acus,  arcus,  and  tribus ;  usually  by  artus,  lacus,  partus, 
portus,  specus,  and  veru ;  and  sometimes  by  genu,  tonitrus, 
and  Quinquatrus. 

5.  Most  nouns  of  this  declension  in  us  are  masculine  ;  but 
the  following  are  feminine :  acus,  domus,  manus,  porticus, 


36  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

tribus,  Idus  (plural),  Quinquatrus  (plural);  and  words  de- 
noting females  or  plants.     Specus,  m.,  is  rarely  feminine. 

THE   FIFTH    DECLENSION. 

E-  STEMS. 

35.  Nouns  of  the  Fifth  Declension  end  in  es,  and  are  of  the 
Feminine  Gender. 

They  are  thus  declined : 

Dies,  c.,  Res,  f.,  Fides,  f., 

a  day.  a  thing.  faith. 

Singular. 

NOM.  dies,  res,  fides, 

GEN.  die!,  rei,  fidei, 

DAT.  diei,  rei,  f  idei, 

Ace.  diem,  rem,  fidem, 

Voc.  dies,  res,  fides, 

ABL.  die.  re.  fide. 

Plural. 

NOM.  dies,  res,  (no  plural.) 

GEN.  dierum,  rerum, 

DAT.  diebus,  rebus, 

Ace.  dies,  res, 

Voc.  dies,  res, 

ABL.  diebus.  rebus. 

1.  Dies  and  res  are  the  only  nouns  of  the  fifth  declension 
which  have  all  the  cases  in  both  numbers. 

2.  In  the  termination  ei  of  the  genitive  and  dative,  e  is  long 
after  i,  as,  progeniei ;  but  short,  in  the  classical  period,  after 
a  consonant. 

3.  The  termination  ei  was  also  contracted  into  e,  and  an- 
ciently into  I,  as  die,  dii.    Examples  :  constantis  juvenem 
fide,  and   commissa  fide,  Hor. ;  munera  laetitiamque 
dii,  Verg. 

4.  The  phrases  die  crastini,  die  proximi,  die  septimi, 


DEFECTIVE  AND  IRREGULAR  NOUNS. 


37 


are  examples  of  the  locative  case  in  this  declension.   So  cotidie, 
postridie. 

5.  All  nouns  of  the  fifth  declension  are  feminine ;  except 
dies,  which,  if  it  means  a  day,  is  in  the  singular  usually,  and 
in  the  plural  always,  masculine ;  but  if  it  means  time,  dies 
is  feminine. 

36.  GENERAL  VIEW  OF  ALL  THE  DECLENSIONS. 


Singular. 

1st  Decl. 

2d  Decl. 

3d  Decl. 

4th  Decl. 

5th  Decl. 

NOM.  mensa, 

servus, 

hSnSr, 

fructus, 

dies, 

GEN.  mensae, 

servi, 

h&norts, 

fructus, 

diei, 

DAT.  mensae, 

servo, 

hSnorl, 

fructuT, 

diei, 

Ace.  mensam, 

servum, 

hSnSrem, 

fructum, 

diem, 

VOC.  mensa, 

serve, 

hSnSr, 

fructus, 

dies, 

ABL.  mensa. 

servo. 

hSnore. 

fructu. 

die. 

Plural, 


NOM.  mensae, 

servT, 

hftnores, 

fructus, 

dies, 

GEN.  mensarum, 

servorum, 

hSnorum, 

fructuum, 

dierum, 

DAT.  mensTs, 

servls, 

h6nortbus, 

frucubus, 

diebus, 

Ace.  mensas, 

servos, 

hSnores, 

fructus, 

dies, 

Voc.  mensae, 

servT, 

hSnores, 

'  fructus, 

dies, 

ABL.  mensTs. 

servis. 

h6noribus. 

fructibus. 

diebus. 

37.  DEFECTIVE   AND   IRREGULAR   NOUNS. 

1.  Some  nouns  are  defective  in  number,  or  case,  or  both. 

2.  The  following  have  the  singular,  but  rarely  the  plural : 
a  Most  proper  names :  as,  Cicero,  Roma. 

6  Abstract  nouns  :  as,  justitia,  justice. 

c  Words  which  indicate  material:  as,  aurum,  gold;  hor- 
deum,  barley. 

d  Words  signifying  a  whole,  without  reference  to  the  indi- 
vidual: as,  plebs,  the  people;  siipellex,  furniture. 

e  Other  words  which  from  their  signification  are  never  used 
in  the  plural:  as,  pontus,  the  sea;  sanguis,  blood;  sopor, 
sleep;  limus,  mud;  humus,  the  ground. 

Note  1. — But  proper  names  haye  a  plural  when  several  of  one  name  are 
mentioned:  as,  duodecim  Caesares,  the  twelve  Caesars;  also  when  they 
are  used  as  common  nouns:  as,  multi  Cattllnae,  many  Catilines,  i.  e., 
many  abandoned  men. 
4 


38 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


Note  2. — When  different  things  of  a  kind,  or  different  manifestations  of 
the  same  thing,  are  specified,  the  plural  is  used :  as,  vlna,  wines ;  odia, 
various  instances  of  hatred. 

Note  3. — The  poets  often  use  plurals  which  are  not  met  with  in  prose : 
as,  silentia,  silences  or  silence. 

3.  The  following  are  used  almost  solely  in  the  plural : 

a  Words  denoting  individuals  appearing  in  great  numbers, 
in  groups,  or  in  pairs  :  as,  majores,  ancestors;  llberi,  children 
(also  sing.) ;  excubiae,  night-watch;  artus,  limbs  (rarely  sing.) ; 
Hia,  the  loins. 

b  Names  of  things  which  have  many  parts :  as,  anna,  armor ; 
balneae,  a  bath-house;  exuviae,  spoils  (stripped  from  the 
dead) ;  moenia,  fortifications. 

c  Names  of  festivals  and  periods  :  as,  Saturnalia,  the  feast 
of  Saturn;  Kalendae,  the  Calends;  Nonae,  the  Nones;  Idus, 
the  Ides. 

d  The  following,  with  many  more,  come  under  one  or  other 
of  the  above  heads ;  those  marked  s.  are  sometimes,  though 
rarely,  used  in  the  sing. : 


ambages,  a  round-about  way  (see 
5,  below) ;  evasive  language  or  con- 
duct. 

angustiae,  a  strait,  s. 

argutiae,  witticisms,  acuteness,  s. 

blgae  (quadrigae),  etc.,  a  chariot 
and  pair  (or  and  four),  B. 

blanditiae,  flattery,  s. 

clltellae,  a  pack-saddle. 

compedes,  shackles,  B. 

crepundi-a,  -orum,  n.,  a  (child's) 
rattle. 

cunabul-a,  and  incunabul-a.  orum, 
n.,  a  cradle. 

cunae,  a  cradle. 

delTciae,  darling,  s. 

dTvitiae,  wealth,  s. 

epulae,  a  banquet,  s. 

exsequiae,  funeral  rites. 

ext-a,  -orum,  n.,  entrails. 

4.  Many  names  of  towns  (as  consisting  of  parts),  mountains 
(as  groups  or  ridges),  and  hills,  have  no  singular ;  as, 


fasti,  a  calendar. 

fauces,  the  throat,  B. 

grates,  thanks. 

habenae,  reins,  s. 

induciae,  a  truce. 

inferiae,  offering  to  the  dead. 

nnmTcttiae,  enmity,  s. 

instdiae,  ambush,  s. 

ITberi,  m.,  children,  s. 

minae,  threats. 

muni-a,  -orum,  n.,  duties. 

nugae,  trifles. 

nuptiae,  a  marriage-feast. 

preces,  prayers,  s. 

reltquiae,  remnant,  s. 

sallnae,  salt-pits. 

scalae,  a  ladder,  a. 

tenebrae,  darkness,  s. 

valvae,  folding-doors,  s. 


DEFECTIVE  AND  IRREGULAR  NOUNS. 


39 


Acrocerauni-a,  -orum,  n. 
Alp-es,  -ium  (s.  rare). 
Amycl-ae,  -arum. 
Athen-ae,  -arum. 
Ecbatan-a,  -orum. 
Esquili-ae,  -arum. 


Gabi-i,  -orum. 
Parisi-i,  -orum. 
Phtlipp-i,  -orum. 
Syracus-ae,  -arum. 
Thermopyl-ae,  -arum. 
Vei-i,  -orum. 


5.  The  following  nouns,  among  others,  want  some  of  their 
cases : 


admonttu,  abl.  only,  admonition. 
aes,  brass;  wants  gen.  plur. 
ambage,  abl.,  a  round-about;  plur. 

complete, 
aplustre,  nom.  and  ace.,  curved  stern 

of  a  ship;  plur.,  aplustr-a,  or  -ia. 
astu,  nom.,  ace.,  abl.  s.,  a  city. 
astus,  nom.  sing.,  and  ace.  plur., 

craft;  abl.  sing.,  astu. 
cacoeth.es,  nom.  and  ace.,  bad  habit; 

plur.,  nom.   and  ace.,   cacoethe; 

ace.,  also  -es. 
caellte,  abl.,  inhabitant  of  heaven ; 

plur.  complete, 
canities,  -em  (ace.),  -e  (abl.),  hoari- 

ness. 
chaos,  nom.  and  ace. ;  chao,  abl. ; 

chaos. 
compedis,  gen.,  and  compede,  abl., 

a  fetter  ;  plur.  complete, 
(daps),  nom.  wanting,  a  feast;  rest 

of  sing,  and  plur.  complete, 
(dtcio),  nom.  wanting ;  rest  of  sing. 

complete ;  no  plur. ;  power. 
diu,  abl.,  by  day. 
far,  corn ;  wants  gen.,  dat.,  and  abl. 

plur. 

fas,  right;  only  nom.  and  ace.  s. 
fauce,  abl.,  the  throat;  plur.  com- 
plete, 
foras,    (to)    out   of    doors;    foris, 

abroad;  ace.  and  abl. 
fors,  chance;  abl.  forte, 
(frux),  fruit;  nom.  wanting. 


grates,  thanks;  nom.,  ace.,  and  abl- 
plur.  (gratibus). 

hiemps,  winter;  wants  gen.,  dat., 
and  abl.  plur. 

impetis,  gen.,  and  impete,  abl.,  ve- 
hemence; plur.  impetibus. 

infitias,  ace.  plur.,  a  denial. 

ingratiis,  abl.  plur.,  against  one's 
will. 

injussu,  abl.,  without  orders. 

instar,  nom.  and  ace.,  likeness. 

jugeris,  gen.,  and  abl.  jugere,  an 
acre;  plur.  -a,  -um,  -ibus,  etc. 

jussu,  abl.,  by  command. 

lux,  light;  wants  gen.  plur. 

mane,  nom.  and  ace. ;  abl.,  rarely 
mane  or  mani,  the  morning. 

mel,  honey;  wants  gen.,  dat.,  and 
abl.  plur. 

melos,  melody,  nom.  and  ace. ;  melo, 
dat. ;  plur.,  nom.  and  ace.,  mele. 

metus,  fear ;  wants  gen.,  dat.,  and 
abl.  plur. 

monitu,  abl.,  admonition. 

natu,  abl.,  by  birth. 

nauci,  gen.,  as  in  the  phrase,  Non 
nauci  est,  It  is  not  worth  a  nut- 
shell. 

nefas,  nom.  and  ace.,  wrong  (by  di- 
vine law). 

nemo,  nobody;  wants  voc.  sing,  and 
all  the  plur.  The  gen.  and  abl. 
are  rare. 

mini,  nom.  and  ace.,  nothing. 


40 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


noctu,  abl.,  by  night. 

opis,  gen.;  opem,  ace.;  ope,  abl., 

help  ;  plur.  complete, 
opus,  need,  nom.  and  ace. 
6s,  the  mouth;  wants  gen.  plur. 
pax,  peace  ;  wants  gen.  plur. 
pessum,  to  the  bad;  ace. 
preci,  dat. ;  precem,  ace. ;  and  prece, 

abl.,  prayer  ;  plur.  complete, 
promptu,  abl.,  with  readiness. 
pus,  matter  from  suppuration;  wants 

gen.,  dat.,  and  abl.  plur. 
repetundarum,  gen.  plur. ;  and  re- 

petundis,  abl.,  extortion.  (Supply 

rerum,  rebus.) 
rogatu,  abl.,  by  request. 
rus,  the  country;  wants  gen.,  dat., 

and  abl.  plur. 

secus,  sex;  only  nom.  and  ace. 
situs,  situation,  nom.;  -um,  ace.; 

-u,  abl. ;  -us,  nom.  and  ace.  plur. 
sol,  the  sun;  wants  gen.  plur. 


sordis,  gen.;  sordem,  ace.;  sord-e 
and  -i,  abl., filth;  plur.  complete. 

spontis,  gen.  (very  rare);  sponte, 
abl.,  of  one's  own  accord. 

suboles,  offspring ;  wants  gen.  plur. 

Tempe,  a  valley  in  Thessaly;  only  in 
nom.,  ace.,  and  voc.  plur. 

thus,  frankincense ;  wants  gen.,  dat., 
and  abl.  plur. 

venui  and  veno,  dat. ;  venum,  ace. ; 
and  veno,  abl.,  sale. 

veprem,  ace.;  vepre,  abl.,  a  brier; 
plur.  complete. 

vesper,  evening;  vesperum,  ace.; 
vesper-e,  -i,  or  -o,  abl. 

vesper-a,  -am,  -a  (abl.),  the  even- 
ing. 

vTcis,  gen. ;  vTci,  dat. ;  vTcem,  ace. ; 
and  vtce,  abl.,  change;  plur.  com- 
plete except  gen. 

vis,  vim,  vi;  gen.  and  dat.  rare; 
plur.,  vires,  vlrium,  etc.,  strength. 


6.  Some  nouns  have  a  plural  differing  in  gender  and  in  for- 
mation from  the  singular.  These  are  called  Metaplasts  or 
Heterogeneous  : 


Singular. 

Mane. 

Avernus,  Avernus  (lake). 
Dindymus,  Dindymus  (nU.). 
Ismarus,  Ismarus  (mt.). 
Maenalus,  Maenalm  (mt.). 
Tartarus,  Tartarus. 

Masc. 

intubus,  (the  plant)  endive. 
jocus,  a  joke. 
locus,  a  place. 
slbilus,  a  hissing. 

Fern. 

carbasus,  a  species  of  flax. 
Hierosolym-a,  -ae,  Jerusalem. 


Plviral. 
Neut. 
Averna. 
Dindyma. 
Ismara. 
Maenala. 
Tartara,  etc. 

Masc.  or  NeuL 
intuba  and  intubi. 
joci  and  joca.  [sages  in  books. 

loca,  places,  and  loci,  spots,  or  pas- 
slbila  (and  sibili). 

Fern.  orNeuL 

(carbasi)  and  carbasa  (n.). 
Hierosolym-a,  -orum  (n.). 


DEFECTIVE  AND  IRREGULAR  NOUNS.  41 

Neut.  Masc. 

Argos,  Argos.  Argi. 

oaelum,  Heaven.  caeli. 

Elysium,  Elysium.  Elysii. 

porrum,  a  leek.  porri. 

slser,  (the  plant)  skirret.  siseres. 

Neut.  Masc.  or  Neut. 

frenum,  a  bridle.  freni  and  frena. 

rastrum,  a  rake.  rastri  and  rastra. 

Neut.  Fern. 

balneum,  a  bath.  balneae  and  balnea  (u.). 

epulum,  a  feast.  epulae. 

nundmum,  a  market.  nundmae,  a  fair. 

So  also  vas,  vasis,  n.,  a  vessel  (3d  vas-a,  -orum  (2d  Decl.),  n. 
Decl.). 

7.  Some  nouns  have  two  or  more  forms  in  one  or  more  of 
the  oblique  cases,  derivable  from  the  same  form  in  the  nom. 
These  are  called  Heteroolites  :  as, 

domus,  f.,  a  house  (see  §  34). 

fames,  f.,  hunger;  abl.,  fame  (3d  Decl.),  or  fame  (5th). 

pecus,  pecudis,  f.,  a  single  head  of  cattle ;  and  pecus,  pecoris,  n.,  cattle 

collectively. 
pinus,  a  pine  ;  also  flcus,  a  Jig-tree ;  and  laurus,  a  bay  (2d  Decl.) ;  but  in 

abl.  sing.,  nom.  and  ace.  plur.  (4th  Decl.). 
requi-es,  -etis,  f.,  rest ;  ace.,  -em  (5th),  or  -etem  (3d), 
satrap-es,  -ae  (1st),  and  satrap-es,  -is  (3d),  a  satrap  or  governor. 
senat-us,  -i,  or  -us,  the  senate. 

8.  Some  nouns  have  two  forms  of  the  same  or  different  declen- 
sions.   They  are  called  Abundantia,  or  Redundant :  as, 

bacul-us,  or  -urn  (2d),  a  staff. 
balte-us,  or  -um  (2d),  a  girdle. 
clYpe-us,  or  -um  (2d),  a  shield. 

diluvi-um,  -i  (3d) ;  -o,  -onis  (3d) ;  and  diluvi-es,  -ei  (5th),  a  flood. 
duriti-a,  -ae  (1st),  or  duriti-es,  -ei  (5th),  hardness. 
event-us,  -us  (4th),  or  -um,  -i  (2d),  an  occurrence. 
juvent-us,  -utis  (3d),  or  juvent-a,  -ae  (1st),  youth. 
luxuri-a,  -ae  (1st),  and  luxuri-es,  -ei  (5th),  luxury. 
materi-a,  -ae  (1st),  or  materi-es,  ei  (5th),  material,  stuff. 
plebs,  pleb-is  or  pleb-es,  pleb-is  (3d),  or  pleb-es,  -ei  (5th),  the  commons. 
sestertius  (2d  m.),  a  sesterce,  about  four  cents;  sestertium  (2d  n.),  a  thou- 
sand sesterces. 
4* 


42 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


vesper,  gen.  vesper-i  (2d) ;  or  vesper,  gen.  vesper-is  (3d) ;  or  vesper-a,  -ae 
(1st),  the  evening  ;  with  many  others. 

0.  Some  nouns  have  a  meaning  in  the  plural  more  or  less 
different  from  that  of  the  singular  :  as, 


Singular, 
aedes,  a  temple. 
aqua,  water, 
aux  ilium,  help, 
bonum,  a  good,  a  blessing, 
career,  a  prison, 
castrum,  a  fort, 
cera,  wax. 

codtcillus,  a  bit  of  wood, 
comitium,  a  place  of  meeting, 
copia,  plenty. 

facultas,  a  power  or  faculty, 
fides,  harp-string, 
finis,  an  end. 
fortuna,  fortune, 
gratia,  favor. 

impedimentum,  a  hindrance, 
littera,  a  letter  of  the  alphabet. 

ludus,  play,  a  fencing-school. 

lustrum,  a  period  of  five  years. 

naris,  a  nostril. 

natalis,  a  birthday. 

opera,  labor,  toil. 

opis,  gen.,  help. 

pars,  a  part. 

plaga,  region, 
rostrum,  a  beak. 


sal,  salt, 
tabella,  tablet, 
tabula,  a  board,  plank. 

torus,  a  couch. 


Plural. 

aedes,  temples,  or  a  house. 

aquae,  waters,  or  medicinal  springs. 

auxtlia,  auxiliary  troops. 

bona,  goods,  property. 

career es,  a  starting-post,  barriers. 

castra,  a  camp. 

cerae,  waxen  tablets  or  busts. 

codicilli,  tablets. 

comitia,  the  Assembly  at  Rome. 

copiae,  troops,  stores,  resources. 

facultates,  means  or  resources. 

fides,  lyre. 

fines,  boundaries  or  territory. 

fortunae,  gifts  of  fortune. 

gratiae,  thanks. 

impedimenta,  baggage. 

litterae,  letters  of  the  alphabet,  or  an 
epistle,  or  literature. 

ludi,  public  games. 

lustra,  lairs,  dens. 

nares,  the  nose. 

natales,  pedigree,  descent. 

operae,  workmen. 

opes,  wealth,  resources,  power. 

partes,  parts ;  the  part  of  an  actor  in 
a  play ;  a  party  or  faction. 

plagae,  snares. 

rostra,  the  hustings,  or  place  from 
which  the  orators  at  Rome  ad- 
dressed the  people. 

sales,  wit,  witticisms. 

tabellae,  documents. 

tabulae,  boards :  an  account-book, 
register;  writing-tablets. 

tori,  muscles. 


Note.— Many  nouns  in  this  list  have  occasionally  in  the  singular  the 
same  meaning  as  that  which  is  found  in  the  plural. 


DECLENSION  OF  ADJECTIVES. 


43 


DECLENSION   OF   ADJECTIVES. 

38.  Adjectives  and  Participles  are  declined  like  Nouns  of 
similar  terminations. 

1.  The  study  of  the  declension  of  adjectives  is  therefore  like  a  review  of 
the  corresponding  declensions  of  nouns. 

39.  Adjectives  of  the  First  and  Second  Declension  end  in 
us  or  er,  Masculine ;  a,  Feminine ;  and  urn,  Neuter ;  and  are 
thus  declined : 


Bonus,  m.,  bona,  f.,  bonum,  n.,  good. 


Singular. 

Hose. 

Fern. 

NOM.  b6nus, 

bSna, 

GEN.  bSnT, 

b5nae, 

DAT.  bSno, 

bSnae, 

AGO.  bSnum, 

bSnara, 

Voc.  bone, 

b6na, 

ABL.  bono. 

b5na. 

Plural. 

NOM.  bftni, 

bSnae, 

GEN.  b&n5rum, 

bSnariim, 

DAT.  bSnis, 

bSnis, 

AGO.  bonos, 

b5nas, 

Voo.  b5ni, 

b5nae, 

ABL.  bSnis. 

b5nis. 

Neut. 
b6num, 
b5ni, 
bono, 
bonum, 
bonum, 
b6no. 


bSna, 

b6n5riim, 

bSnis, 

b6na, 

bona, 

b5nls. 


Tener,  tenera,  tenerum,  tender. 

Singular. 


NOM. 

GEN. 

DAT. 

AGO. 

Voo.  tengr, 

ABL. 


tSnSrum, 


44 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


Plural. 

Mate. 

Fern. 

Netd. 

NOM.  tengri, 

tSnSrae, 

tgnera, 

GEN.  t£nerorum, 

t£nerarum, 

tenerorum, 

DAT.  tenSris, 

tgnSris, 

teneris, 

Aco.  tSneYos, 

t&neras, 

tSngra, 

Voc.  tenSri, 

tgn&rae, 

tgngra, 

ABL.  t£neris. 

tfeneris. 

tgngris. 

PIgSr, 

pigra,  pigrum,  lazy. 

Singular. 

NOM.  pigeV, 

pigra, 

pigrum, 

GEN.  pigri, 

pigrae, 

pigri, 

DAT.  pigro, 

pigrae, 

pigro, 

Ace.  pigrum, 

pigram, 

pigrum, 

Voc.  piger, 

pigra, 

pigrum, 

ABL.  pigro. 

pigra. 

pigro. 

Plural. 

NOM.  pigri, 

pigrae, 

pigra, 

GEN.  pigrorum, 

pigrarum, 

pigrorum, 

DAT.  pigris, 

pigris, 

pigris, 

Ace.  pigros, 

pigras, 

pigra, 

Voc.  pigri, 

pigrae, 

pigra, 

ABL.  pigris. 

pigris. 

pigris, 

40.  Participles  ending  in  us,  a,  um  are  declined  like  bonus. 
1.  Dexter,  on  the  right  hand,  has  the  two  forms  dextera  and 

dextra  in  the  feminine,  and  dexterum  and  dextrum  in  the 
neuter. 

41.  The  following  adjectives  have  the  genitive  singular  hi 
ms  and  the  dative  in  I:  alius,  nullus,  solus,  totus,  ullus, 
unus,  alter,  liter,  neuter.     Thus  : 


Totus,  tota,  totum,  whole. 

Singular. 

Masc. 

Fern. 

NeuL 

NOM.  totus, 

tota, 

totum, 

GEN.  totius, 

totius, 

totius, 

DAT.  toti, 

tots, 

toti, 

Ace.  totum, 

totam, 

totum, 

Voc.  tote, 

tota, 

totum  , 

ABL.  toto. 

tota. 

toto. 

DECLENSION  OF  ADJECTIVES. 
The  plural  is  regular,  like  that  of  bonus. 


45 


1.  The  T  of  the  penult  in  these  genitives  is  long,  and  takes  the  accent  in 
prose,  except  in  altertus.    In  poetry  it  is  sometimes  shortened. 

2.  Alius  has  in  its  genitive  singular  alius,  and  in  the  dative  alii.    In 
the  nominative  and  accusative  neuter  it  has  aliud. 

3.  Some  of  these  adjectives  and  pronominal  words  are  occasionally  found 
with  the  common  endings  in  the  genitive  or  dative. 


42.  Adjectives  of  the  Third  Declension  are  of  three  classes : 
(1)  a  small  number  with  three  terminations  in  the  nomina- 
tive singular,  one  for  each  gender,  -er,  -ris,  -re;  (2)  many 
with  two  terminations,  -is  Masculine  and  Feminine,  -e  Neuter, 
and  comparatives  in  -or  Masculine  and  Feminine,  -us  Neuter ; 
and  (3)  many  in  r,  1,  s,  or  x,  with  one  termination  for  all 
genders.  They  are  thus  declined  : 

Acer  or  acris,  acris,  acre,  sharp. 


Masc. 

NOM.  acSr, 
GEN.  acris, 
DAT.  acrl, 
Aco.  acrem, 
Voo.  acgr, 
ABL.  acrl. 


Singular. 

Fem. 
acris, 
acris, 
acrl, 
acrem, 
acris, 
acrl. 


Neut. 

acre, 

acris, 

acrl, 

acre, 

acre, 

acrl. 


NOM.  acres, 
GEN.  acrium, 
DAT.  acribus, 
Ace.  acres,  is, 
Voc.  acres, 
ABL.  acribus. 


Plural, 
acres, 
acrium, 
acribus, 
acres,  Is, 
acres, 
acribus. 


acria, 

acrium, 

acribus, 

acria, 

acria, 

acribus. 


1.  Celer,  celerts,  celere,  swift,  is  the  only  adjective  of  this  class  which 
retains  e  before  r  through  all  the  cases.  Its  genitive  plural  ends  in  ium 
when  it  is  used  merely  as  an  adjective,  but  in  um  when  it  signifies  the  an- 
cient body-guard  at  Konie,  called  Celeres. 


46  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

43,  Mitis,  mite,  mild. 

Singular.  Plural. 

Masc.  and  Fern.  Neut.  Masc.  and  Fern.  Neut. 

NOM.  mitis,  mite",  mites,  mitia, 

GEX.  mitis,  mitis,  mltium,  mltium, 

DAT.  miti,  miti,  mltibus,  mltibus, 

Ace.  mltem,  mite,  mites,  Is,  mitia, 

Voc.  uritis,  mite,  mites,  mitia, 

ABL.  miti.  miti.  mltibus,  mitibus. 

1.  An  ablative  singular  in  e  is  sometimes  found  in  poetry. 


44— 1.  Mitior,  mltius,  milder. 


Singular. 

Plural. 

Mate,  and  Fern. 

Newt. 

Masc.  and  Fern. 

Neat. 

NOM.  mitior, 

mltitis, 

mltiores, 

mltiora, 

GEX.  mitior  is, 

mitioris, 

mltiorum, 

mltiorum, 

DAT.  mitiori, 

mitiori, 

mitior  ibus, 

mltioribus, 

Ace.  mitiorem, 

inltiiis, 

mltiores,  -is, 

mltiora, 

Voc.  mltiSr, 

mltiiis, 

mltiores, 

mltiora, 

ABL.  inltiore,  -T.     mltiore",  -I.      mltioribus. 


mltioribus. 


2.  The  comparative  plus,  more,  plural,  plures,  plura,  is  thus 
declined : 

Singular. 
NeuL 

NOM.  plus, 
GEN.  pluris, 
DAT.  wanting, 
Ace.   plus, 
ABL.  plure. 

3.  The  comparative  degree  was  formed  by  adding  to  the  dipt  stem  the 
termination  -tos,  which  was  changed  in  the  nom.  sing.,  masc.  and  fern.,  to 
tor,  in  the  oblique  cases  to  ior,  and  appears  in  the  neut.  nom.  sing,  as  ins. 

4.  Complures,  several,  is  declined  like  plures. 

5.  The  ablative  in  -i  in  comparatives  is  rare. 

6.  Plures  and  complures  are  the  only  comparatives  which  have  the  gen. 
plur.  in  ium. 


Plural, 

Masc.  and  Fern. 

Neut. 

plures, 

plurS  (-15), 

plurium, 

plurium, 

pluribus, 

pluribus, 

plures,  -Is, 

plura  (-ia), 

pluribus. 

plurYbus. 

DECLENSION  OF  ADJECTIVES. 


47 


45.  Felix,  happy ;  (x  =  cs).        Prudens,  wise.        Vetus,  old. 


Masc.  and  Fern.       Neut. 

NOM. 

felix, 

GEN. 

felicis, 

DAT. 

felic!, 

Ace. 

felicem,    felix, 

Voc. 

felix, 

ABL. 

felic!,  -e. 

Singular. 

Masc.  and  Fern.       Neut. 

Masc.  and  Fern.    Neut. 

prudens, 

v6tus, 

prudentts, 

veteris, 

prudent!, 

vSt6r!, 

prudentem,    prudens, 

v8t8rem,    vSttis, 

prudens, 

vetiis, 

prudent!,  -e. 

vetere. 

Plural. 

NOM.       fellces,  fellcia,  prudentes,  prudentia,  v6tgres,  v5t6ra, 

GEN.             felicinm,  prudentium,                    v6t6rSm, 

DAT.             fellcibus,  prudentibus,                   v6t6ribus, 

Ace.  fellces,  -is,  fellcia,  prudentes,  -is,  prudentia,    v6tgres,  v8t6ra, 

Voc.  fiellces,  fellcia,  prudentes,  prudentia,  v6t6res,  v6t6ra, 

ABL.             fellcibus.  prudentibus.                   veteribus. 


Amans,  loving. 


Singular. 


Masc.  and  Fern.    Neut. 
NOM.  £mans, 

GEN.  Smantis, 

DAT.  amantl, 

Aoo.  Smantem,   amans, 
Voo.  amans, 

ABL.  &mante,  -T. 

NOM.  amantes,  Smantia, 
GEN.  Smantium, 

DAT.  amantibus, 

Aoo.  Smantes,  araantia, 
Voo.  amantes,  amantia, 
ABL.  amantibus. 


Plural. 


lens,  going. 

Masc.  and  Fern.    Neut. 
iens, 
euntis, 
eunti, 

,  iens, 
iens, 
eunte,  -T. 


euntes,  euntia, 

euntium, 

euntibiis, 

euntes,   euntia, 

euntes,  euntia, 

euntibiis. 


1.  The  ablative  singular  of  adjectives  of  one  termination  ends  commonly 
in  -! ;  but  when  used  as  nouns  they  have  -e. 

2.  Participles,  used  as  such,  have  -e  in  the  ablative;  when  used  as 
adjectives  or  nouns,  more  commonly  -!. 

3.  Consonant-stems,  in  which  the  vowel  before  the  final  consonant  is 
long,  or  which  end  in  two  consonants,  have  -ium  in  the  genitive  plural ; 


48  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

as,  audac-ium,  prudent-inm.  Those  which  have  a  short  vowel  before  the 
final  consonant  have  -um.  These  rules,  however,  have  some  exceptions. 

Participles  also  have  -ium ;  but  when  used  as  nouns  they  have  some- 
times -um. 

4.  Composite  adjectives  follow  in  the  genitive  plural  the  declension  of 
the  nouns  or  adjectives  from  which  they  are  derived :  as,  concors,  con- 
cordum;  anceps,  ancipitum;  quadrupes,  quadrupedum.  Their  neuter 
plural,  however,  has  generally  ia :  as,  anctpitia,  verstcoloria,  quadru- 
pedia. 

46.  IRREGULAR  ADJECTIVES. 

1.  Some  adjectives  have  two  forms,  one  like  bonus,  the 
other  like  tristis  or  prudens  : 

acclivts  (us),  steep;  imbecillus  (IB),  weak; 

bljugts  (us),  two-yoked;  imberbts  (us),  beardless ; 

eflrenus  (is),  unbridled;  Inermus  (is),  unarmed; 

unanlmus  (is),  of  one  mind;  Cpulentus  (Spulens),  wealthy  ; 

hllaris  (us),  cheerful;  viftlentus  (violens),  violent. 

So  exanlm-us,  ts;  sgmianlm-us,  ts;  sublim-is,  us;  and  others. 
The  Adverb  luculenter  implies  an  old  form  luculens. 

2.  Some  adjectives  are  defective  in  Number  : 

pauci,  few,  is  rarely  sing.  (Hor.  ad  Pis.  203) ;  plerlque,  most,  is  found 
sing,  with  collective  words :  "  pleraque  nobllltas  "  (for  plerlque  noblles), 
SaUust 

3.  Some  adjectives  are  defective  hi  Case  and  Number  : 

a.  Two  cases : 

Nom.  Sing,  pernox,  Abl.  pernocte,  all  night.  Nom.  and  Ace.  Sing,  ne- 
cesse,  necessary,  from  necessis  (obsolete).  Necessum,  from  necessus  (obs.), 
is  found  in  old  poetry. 

6.  One  case : 

Nom.  sing,  damnas,  condemned  (for  damnat(u)s),  with  esto :  but  used 
also  idiomatically  as  Nom.  PI.  with  sunto;  exspes,  hopeless;  potis,  pote, 
able,  possible. 

c.  Of  some,  the  Nominatives  are  not  found,  but  other  cases 
only: 

(sons),  guilty;  sontes,  the  guilty:  but  insons,  innocent,  has  full  cases. 
Macte,  Voc.  Sing.,  macti,  Voc.  PI.,  are  used  with  esto,  este,  be  blessed,  be 
lucky,  etc.  Macte  (macti)  virtute  esto  (este),  good  luck  to  you  for  your 
valor. 


COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES.  49 

d.  The  Dat.  Sing.  frngi,/or  good,  is  used  as  an  indeclinable  adjective  of 
all  cases :  frugi  servus,  a  good  honest  slave.  Opposed  to  this  is  the  inde- 
clinable adjective  nequam,  good  for  nothing. 

COMPARISON   OF  ADJECTIVES. 

47.  Adjectives  are  compared  regularly  by  adding  to  the 
consonant-stem*  of  the  Positive  the  terminations  -ior,  Mascu- 
line and  Feminine,  and  -ins,  Neuter,  for  the  Comparative,  and 
-issimus,  -a,  -mn,  for  the  Superlative :  as, 

Pos.  Comp.  Superl. 

durus,  durior,          durissimus,  hard,  harder,  hardest. 

tristis,          tristiSr,        tristissimus,  sad,  sadder,  saddest. 
felix,  f§licior,        fellcissimus,  happy,  happier,  happiest. 

1.  Before  Augustus,  the  superlative  ended  in  nmus  instead  of  Tmus. 

48.  Adjectives  in  -er  form  the  superlative  by  adding  -rimus 
to  the  nominative  :  f  as, 

Positive.  Comparative.  Superlative, 

celer,  swift;  celerior,  celerrimus. 

pulcher,  beautiful;       pulchrior,        pulcherrimus. 
Note.— Vetus  has  in  the  superlative  veterrnnns  (comparative  vetustior, 
rarely  veterior);  matnrns,  matnrissimus  and  maturrimus ;  salubris, 
saluberrimus. 

1.  Six  adjectives  in  ills  form  the  superlative  by  changing  is 
into  limus ;  f  they  are 

facilis,  easy ;  similis,  like;  graoilis,  slender; 

difficilis,  hard;        dissimilis,  unlike;        humilis,  lowly. 
Thus :    Pos.  facilis,       COMP.  facilior,       SUPERL.  facillimus. 

49.  IRREGULAR  OR  DEFECTIVE  COMPARISON. 

1.  The  following  adjectives  are  either  deficient  in  the 
positive  degree,  or  form  their  comparative  and  superlative 
irregularly  or  from  a  different  stem  : 

Positive.  Comparative.  Superlative, 

bonus,  good,  melior,  better,  optimus,  best, 

mains,  bad,  pejor,  worse,  pessnnns,  worst. 

*  That  is,  the  dipt  stem,  left  after  the  removal  from  the  full  stem  of  the 
vowel  after  its  last  consonant. 

f  In  other  words,  they  double  the  last  consonant  of  the  uncontracted 
stem,  and  change  the  termination  to  tmns. 
5  D 


50 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


Positive. 

Comparative. 

Superlative. 

magnus,  great, 

major,  greater, 

maxYmus,  greatest. 

parvus,  small, 

mYnor,  less, 

mYnYmus,*  least. 

multus,  much, 

plus  (neut.),  more, 

plurYmus,  most. 

nequam  (indecl.),  wicked, 

nequior, 

nequissYmus. 

dis,      I"6  ' 

I  divYtior, 
1  ditior, 

idlvYtissYmus  (Cic.). 
ditissYmus  (Aug.  and 
post-  Aug.). 

senex,  old, 

senior, 

(natu  maxYmus). 

{junior  (sometimes 

juvenis,  young, 

post-  Aug.  juve- 

(natu  mYnYmus). 

nior), 

adulescens,  young, 

adulescentior, 

(natu  mYnYmus). 

potis,  pote  (indecl.),  J 
able,  possible,      ) 

potior,  better, 

potissYmus,  best. 

(no  positive,  cf.  uwuj), 

ocYor,  swifter, 

ocissYmus. 

frugi  (indecl.), 

frugalior, 

frugalissYmus. 

egens,    J 
egenus,  J 

egentior, 

egentissYmus. 

bcHcvolus                            i 

benevolens  (Plaut.,  Ter.),  j 

benevolentior, 

benevolentissYmus. 

malevolus                  i 

malevolens  (Plaut.),  J 

malevolent!  or, 

male  volentissYmus  . 

maledicens  (Plaut.),  J 

maledlcentior, 

maledicentissYmus. 

benefYcus, 

beneficentior, 

benencentissYmus. 

malefYcus, 

malencentissYmus. 

magnYfYcus, 

magnificentior, 

magnificentissYmus. 

mnnYfYcus, 

munincentissYmus. 

mirYfYcus, 

f  mirificissYmus   (Ter. 

1     once). 

honorYfYcus, 

honorificentior, 

honorificentissYmus. 

provYdus,    | 

provYdens,  J 

providentior, 

providentissYmus. 

cltra  (adv.),  on  this  side, 

cYterior, 

cYtYmus. 

de   (prep.),  down  from, 

deterior,  worse, 

deterrYmus. 

extra  (adv.),  exter  (adj.),  "| 
outside    (very   rare   in  \ 

exterior, 

f  ex  trim  us. 
1  extYmus. 

sing.),  ex  tennis, 

infra  (adv.),  infer  (adj.),  1 

low,    (chiefly    used     in 
plur.,  the  beings,  places,  f 

inferior, 

f  infYmus. 
1  Tmus. 

etc.,  below),                     j 

Also  parvisslmus  (Varro  and  Lucretius). 


COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES. 


51 


Positive, 
intra  (adv.),  within, 
post,  posterus,  next  (in 

time), 

prae  (prep.),  before, 
prope  (adv.),  near, 
supra  (adv.),  super  (adj.), 

high,   (chiefly  used   in 

plur.  the  beings,  places, 

etc.,  above), 
ultra  (adv.),  beyond, 


Comparative. 

interior,  inner, 
f  posterior,  hinder, 
1     later, 

prior,  former, 

propior, 

superior, 


Superlative. 

inttmus,  inmost. 
f  postremus,  last. 
1  postumus,  last-born. 

primus,  first. 

proxnnus. 

{supremus,  highest, 
last  (in  time). 
summus. 

ultimus,  farthest. 


ulterior,  farther, 

2.  The  following  have  the  superlative,  but  not  the  comparative :  bellus, 
caesius,  diversus,  falsus,  inclutus,  iuvictus,  invltus,  meritus,  novus, 
sacer,  vafer. 

3.  The  following  have  the  comparative,  but  not  the  superlative : 
Verbals  in  -ilis  (except  amabilissimus,  mobilissimus,  fertilissimus, 

utilissimus,  nobilissimus) : 

alacer,  agrestis,  arcanus,  caecus,  diuturnus,  exilis,  jejunus,  juvenis, 
longinquus,  obliquus,  opimus,  proclivis,  pronus,  satur,  segnis,  senex, 
serus,  supmus,  surdus,  tacYturnus,  tempest! vus,  vicinus. 

Sinister  has  the  superlative  smisttmus  only  in  augurial  language. 

50.  Many  adjectives,  which  express  an  absolute  state  or  quality  (as 
material,  e.  g.,  aureus ;  time,  e.  g.,  nocturnus ;  special  relationship,  e.  g., 
paternus),  which  does  not  readily  admit  the  idea  of  a  higher  or  lower 
degree,  have  no  comparative  or  superlative.  In  some  others  they  are 
wanting  without  any  such  apparent  reason. 

If  a  comparison  is  required  in  such  adjectives,  the  defect  is  supplied  by 
adding  magis  and  max i me.  Thus,  magis  mlrus,  more  wonderful,  ma- 
xime  mirus,  most  wonderful. 

Adjectives  used  only  in  the  positive  are  chiefly  of  the 
following  classes : 

1.  Derivatives  ending  in  -Ycus,  -Tnus,  -Tvus,  -orus,  -tnnus,  -ulus,  -alis 
or  -aris,  -Tlis,  and  (from  nouns)  in  -atus  and  -Ttus,  as  civtcus,  naturalis, 
etc.,  barbatus,  crlnltus. 

Exceptions:  aequalior;  capitalior;  civilior  (Ov.) ;  familiarior,  famili- 
arissimus ;  frugalior,  frugalissimus ;  hospitalissimus  (Cic.) ;  juvenilior 
(Ov.);  liberalior,  liberalissimus ;  popularior;  puerilior  (Hor.);  salu- 
tarior. 

2.  Compounds ;  as,  inops,  magnantmus,  etc. 

Except  those  named  above  from  volo,  dico,  facio  (49,  1). 

Except  also  amentior,  amentissimus ;  concordior,  concordissimus ; 
deformior ;  dementior,  dementissimus  ;  immanior,  immanissimus ;  iner- 
tior,  inertissimus ;  ingentior;  insignior;  misericordior ;  perennior; 
sollertior,  sollertissimus. 


52 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


3.  Adjectives  ending  in  -us,  preceded  by  a  vowel. 

Exc.  or.  U  often  is,  or  becomes,  consonantal,  and  thus  allows  a  compara- 
tive or  superlative  without  difficulty ;  as  in  -quus  and  -guis ;  e.  g.  antT- 
quior,  antiquissimus ;  pinguior,  pinguissinms ;  propinquior ;  salutarior ; 
tenuis,  tenuior,  tenuissimus. 

ft.  industrior  (Plant.) ;  piisimus  (condemned  by  Cic.  Phil.  13,  19,  but 
used  by  Antony,  Sen.,  Curt.,  Tac.). 

4.  The  following,  also,  have  at  least  ordinarily  only  the  positive :  albus, 
almus.  calvus,  canus,  claudus,  curvus,  ferus,  gnarus,  gnavus,  lassus, 
mediocris,  memor,  immemor.  mirus,  rudis,  trux. 

51.  Many  present  and  past  participles  have  comparatives  and  superla- 
tives; as, 

1.  Present  Participle : 

amans,  appetens,  ardens.  continens,  egens.  fervens,  flagrans,  florens, 
indulgens.  neglegens,  patiens,  temperans,  tuens,  valens,  etc. 

2.  Past  Participle : 

acceptus,  accuratus,  adstrictus,  apertns,  aversus,  concitatus,  conjun- 
ctus,  contemptus.  dissolutus.  doctus,  effusus,  eruditus,  exoptatus,  expe- 
ditus,  instmctus,  intentus,  munltus,  obstinatus,  paratus,  perditus,  per- 
fectus,  promptus,  refertus,  remotus,  etc. 

52.  COMPARISON  OF  ADVERBS. 

1.  Adverbs  in  e,  o,  e,  ter,  etc.,  derived  from  Adjectives,  often  follow 
their  Comparison,  with  Comparative  ending  us,  Superlative  e  (o,  urn) : 


Adj. 

Adv. 

Compar. 

Superl. 

dignus 

digne 

worthily 

dignius 

dignisslme 

vSfer 

vafre 

cunningly 

vafrius 

vaferrlme 

tutus 

tuto 

safely 

tutius 

tutisslme  (6) 

fdcUis 

facile 

easily 

facilius 

facilllme 

forties 

fortlter 

bravely 

fortius 

fortisslme 

constans 

constanter 

firmly 

constantius 

constantisslme 

audax 

audacter 

boldly 

audacius 

audacisslme 

mtrltus 

merlto 

deservedly 



meritisslmo(e) 

uber 

ubertim 

abundantly 

uberius 

uberrlme 

Adj.  Adv.  Compar.  Superl. 

bfaius       b6n6  well  mglius    better       optJme          best 


malus       male  ///  pejus      worse        pesslme        worst 

magnus    magnop€r6  greatly      magls      more         maxlme        most 

parvu*  {Paulum       «H 

(  parum         too  little  J 
multus      multum       much         plus 


mlnus     iess         fmlnlme         very  little 


<  minimum     least 
more         plurlmum    very  much 


-        ocius       quicker    ocisslme       very  quickly 


COMPARISON.—  NUMERALS.  53 

Adv. 


Compar. 

Superl. 

prius       sooner 

pStius      rather 
detSrius  worse 
interius 

Iprlmo            at  first 
potisslmum  preferably 
deterrime      very  badly 
intlme 

posterius 
propius 

postremo 
proxlme 

intus  within 

post  after 

pr&pe          nearly 

So  also  :  saepg,  often,  saepiiis,  saepissfme  ;  diu,  long,  difititts,  diutisstme  ; 
pgnttfls,  deeply,  pgnttiiis,  pgnltisslme  ;  sfttTs,  enough,  sjUitts  ;  sficiis,  other- 
wise, setiils  ;  tempgri,  betimes,  tempgritts  ;  nupgr,  lately,  nuperrlme. 
Note.  —  Magts  means  more  in  degree;  plus,  more  in  quantity. 

53.   NOTES  ON  COMPARISON. 

1.  The  Comparative  may  imply  a  degree  too  high  (higher 
than  is  right),  or  rather  high,  somewhat  high  (higher  than  ordi- 
nary) :  as,  voluptas  cum  major  est  atque  longior,  etc., 
when  pleasure  is  too  great  and  too  long  continued;  senectus  est 
loquacior,  old  age  is  rather  talkative. 

2.  When  two  adjectives  or  adverbs  are  compared  with 
each  other,  both  are  often  put  in  the  comparative  :  as,  longior 
quam  latior,  rather  long  than  broad;  fortius  quam  felicius, 
with  more  courage  than  success.     But  with  xnagis  —  quam,  each 
word  is  in  the  positive  :  as,  magis  audacter  quam  parate. 

3.  The  Superlative  may  denote  simply  a  very  high  degree  : 
as,  vir  doctissimus,  a  very  learned  man  (i.  e.,  in  the  highest 
grade  of  learning). 

4.  Vel,  eyen,  and  quam,  with  or  without  possum,  as  much 
as  possible,  before  the  Superlative,  render  it  more  emphatic. 

5.  The  Superlative  with  quisque  denotes  each  single  one  who  possesses 
the  quality  in  the  highest  degree,  but  is  best  translated  with  all  or  always: 
as,  opttmus  quisque,  fill  the  best  men,  or  the  best  man  always. 

6.  Per  and  prae  in  composition  often  denote  a  high  degree  of  a  quality; 
sub  a  low  degree. 

NUMERALS. 

54.  The  Cardinal  Numerals  are  adjectives  answering  the 
question  Quot,  how  many  f  as,  unus,  one  ;  quinque,  five. 

1.  The  Ordinal  Numerals  are  adjectives  answering  the  ques- 
tion Quotus,  which  in  order  of  number  f  as,  quintus,  the  fifth. 
5* 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


2.  The  Distributive  Numerals  are  adjectives  answering  the 
question  Quoteni,  how  many  each?  or  how  many  each  time/  as, 
quini,  Jive  apiece,  or  by  fives,  five  at  a  time. 

3.  The  Numeral  Adverbs  answer  the  question  Quotiens,  how 
often  f  as,  semel,  once ;  quinquies  (or  quinquiens),  five  times. 

CARDINAL  NUMERALS. 


Arabic.    Roman  Symbols. 

Cardinals. 

1 

I 

unus,  a,  um,  one. 

2 

II 

du6,  ae,  o,  two. 

3 

III 

tres,  tria. 

4 

IIII  or  IV 

quattuor. 

5 

V 

quinque. 

6 

VI 

sex. 

7 

VII 

septem. 

8 

VIII 

octo. 

9 

VIIII  or  IX 

nftvem. 

10 

X 

decem. 

11 

XI 

undgcim. 

12 

XII 

duodecim. 

13 

XIII 

trgdecim  ;  decem  et  tres  ;  tres  et  decem. 

14 

XIIII  or  XIV 

quattuordecirn  ;  decem  et  quattuor. 

15 

XV 

quindecim. 

16 

XVI 

sedgcim  ;  sexdScim  ;  decem  et  sex. 

17 

XVII 

decem  et  septem;  s.  etd.  ;  septemd&cim. 

18 

XVIII 

duodeviginti  (decem  et  octo). 

19 

XVIIII  or  XIX 

undeviginti  (decem  et  novem). 

20 

XX 

viginti. 

21 

XXI 

unus  et  viginti  ;  viginti  unus. 

22 

XXII 

duo  et  viginti  ;  viginti  duo. 

28 

XXVIII 

duodetrlginta  (octo  et  viginti). 

29 

XXIX 

undetriginta  (novem  et  viginti). 

30 

XXX 

triginta. 

40 

XL 

quadraginta. 

50 

L 

quinquaginta. 

60 

LX 

sexaginta. 

70 

LXX 

septuaginta. 

80 

LXXX 

octoginta. 

90 

XC 

nonaginta. 

98 

IIC 

nonaginta  octo  ;  octo  et  nonaginta. 

99 

1C 

nonaginta  novem  ;  undecentum. 

NUMERALS. 
CARDINAL  NUMBERS-(Continued). 


55 


Arabic. 

Roman  Symbols. 

Cardinals. 

100 

C 

centum. 

101 

CI 

centum  et  unus;  centum  unus. 

136 

CXXXVI 

centum  et  triginta  sex  ;  c.  tr.  s. 

200 

CC 

ducenti,  ae,  a. 

300 

CCC 

trgceuti,  ae,  a 

400 

CCCC 

quadringenti,  ae,  a. 

500 

lOorD 

quingenti,  ae,  a. 

600 

IQC  or  DC 

sescenti,  ae,  a. 

700 

lOCC  or  DCC 

septingenti,  ae,  a. 

800 

IQCCC  or  DCCC 

octingenti,  ae,  a. 

900 

lOCCCC  or  DCCCC 

nongenti,  ae,  a. 

1,000 

CI3  or  M 

mille. 

2,000 

CIoCIo  or  MM 

duo  millia  (bis  mille). 

5,000 

IDO 

quinque  millia. 

10,000 

ccioa 

decem  millia. 

50,000 

IODO 

quinquaginta  millia. 

100,000 

CCCIooo 

centum  millia  ;  centena  millia. 

1,000,000 

CCCCIoooo 

dgcies  centum  millia  ;  dficies. 

ORDINALS,  DISTRIBUTIVES,  AND  NUMERAL  ADVERBS. 


6 

'2 

Ordinals. 

Distributives. 

Nunneral  Adverbs. 

2 

•us,  -a,  -urn. 

-i,  -ae,  -a. 

(-ies  or-iens.) 

i 

primus,  first 

singuli,  one  by  one 

sgmel,  once. 

2 

sgcundus  (or  alter), 

second 

bini,  two  by  two 

bis,  twice. 

3 

tertius,  third 

terni  or  trini 

ter,  thrice. 

4 

quartus 

quaterni 

quater,  four  times. 

5 

quintus 

quini 

quinquies  or  quinquiens. 

6 

sextus 

seni 

sex  ies. 

7 

septlmus 

septeni 

septies. 

8 

octavus 

octoni 

octies. 

9 

nonus 

nSveni 

n6vies. 

10 

dedmus 

deni 

dgcies. 

56 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


ORDINALS,  DISTRIBUTIVES,  AND  NUMERAL  ADVERBS 
(Continued). 


o 

s 

Ordinals. 

Distributives. 

Numeral  Adverbs. 

I 

-us,  -a,  -um. 

-i,  -ae,  -a. 

(-ies  or-iens.) 

11 

undScImus 

undeni 

undecies. 

12 

duodecimos 

duodeni 

duodecies. 

13 

tertius  decimus  (deci- 

mus  et  tertius) 

temi  deni 

terdecies  ortr6decies. 

14 

quartus  decimus 

(decimus  et  quar- 

tus) 

quatemi  deni 

quattuordecies  or  quater  d. 

15 

quintus  decimus 

quini  deni 

quindecies  or  quinquies  d. 

16 

sextus  decimus 

seni  deni 

sedecies  or  sexies  decies. 

17 

septimus  decimus 

septeni  deni 

septiesdecies. 

IS 

duodeviceslmus  (oc- 

tavus  decimus) 

duodeviceni 

duodevicies  or  octies  d. 

19 

undevicesimus    (no- 

nus  decimus) 

undeviceni 

undevicies  or  novies  d. 

^0~ 

vicesimus      (vigesi- 

mus)    or   vicensi- 

mus 

viceni 

vicies. 

21 

unus    et    vicesimus 

(primus    et   vie.  ; 

vie.  pr.) 

viceni  singuli 

semel  et  vicies  or  v.  s. 

22 

alter    et    vicesimus 

(v.  a.;  duo  et  vie.) 

viceni  bini 

bis  et  vicies  or  v.  b. 

28 

duodetricesimus  (oc- 

tavus  et  vicesimus) 

duodetriceni 

octies  et  vicies. 

29 

undetricesimus  (no- 

• 

nus  et  vicesimus) 

undetriceni 

novies  et  vicies. 

30 

tricesimus     (trigesi- 

mus)   or  tricensi- 

mus 

triceni 

tricies. 

40 

quadragesimus 

quadrageni 

quadragies. 

50 

quinquagesimus 

quinquageni 

quinquagies. 

60 

sexagesimus 

sexageni 

sexagies. 

70 

septuagesimus 

septuageni 

septuagies. 

80 

octogesimus 

octogeni 

octogies. 

90 

nonagesimus 

nonageni 

nonagies. 

98 

nonagesimusoctavus 

nonageni  octoni 

nonagies  octies. 

99 

undecentesimus 

undecenteni 

undecenties. 

NUMERALS. 


57 


A  Pcibic. 

Ordinals. 

Distributives. 

Numeral  Adverbs. 

-us,  -a,  -urn. 

-i,  -ae,  -a. 

(-ies  or  -iens.) 

• 

100 

centesimus  or  cen- 

centeni 

centies. 

tensimus 

101 

centesimus  primus 

centeni  singuli 

centies  semel. 

136 

centesimus    tricesi- 

mus  sextus 

centeni  triceni  seni 

centies  tricies  sexies. 

200 

ducentesimus 

duceni 

ducenties. 

300 

trgcentesimus 

treceni 

trecenties. 

400 

quadringentesimus 

quadringeni 

quadringenties. 

500 

quingentesimus 

quingeni 

quingenties. 

600 

sexcentesimus:  sesc. 

seceni 

sescenties. 

700 

septingentesimus 

septingeni 

septingenties. 

800 

octingentesimus 

octingeni 

octingenties. 

900 

nongentesimus 

nongeni 

nongenties. 

1,000 

millesimus  or  mil- 

singula  millia  (milia) 

millies. 

lensimus 

2,000 

t>is  millesimus 

bina  millia 

bis  millies. 

5,000 

quinquies     millesi- 

mus 

quina  millia 

quinquies  millies. 

10,000 

decies  millesimus 

dena  millia 

decies  millies. 

50,000 

quinquagies  millesi- 

mus 

quinquagena  millia 

quinquagies  millies. 

100,000 

centies  millesimus 

centena  millia 

centies  millies. 

500,000 

quingeuties  millesi- 

mus 

quingena  millia 

quingenties  millies. 

1,000,000 

millies  millesimus 

decies  centena  millia 

decies  centies  millies. 

55. — 1.  Unus,  one,  duo,  two,  and  tres,  three,  are  thus  declined : 


Singular. 

Masc. 

Fern. 

Newt. 

NOM.  unus, 
GEN.  unius, 
DAT.  uni, 

una, 
unius, 
uni, 

unum, 
unius, 
uni, 

Ace.  unum, 

unam, 

unum, 

ABL.  uno. 

una. 

uno. 

Masc. 

uni, 

unorum, 

unis, 

unos, 

unis. 


Masc. 


Fern. 


Plural. 

Neut. 


Plural. 

Fern.  Neut. 

unae,  una, 

unarum,  unorum, 

unis,  unis, 

unas,  una, 

unis.  unis. 

Masc.  and  Fern.    Neut. 


NOM.  du5,  duae, 

GEN.  duorum  (duum),  diiarum, 
DAT.  dttobiis,  duabiis, 

Ace.  duos  or  dii6,          dtlas, 
ABL.  duobiis.  duabus. 


dii6, 

tres, 

tria, 

duorum  (duum), 

trittm, 

trium, 

duobus, 

trlbus, 

trlbus, 

dii6, 

tres  (tris), 

tria, 

duobus. 

trlbus. 

trlbtis. 

58  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

2.  The  vocative  fine  is  found  in  Catullus  xxxvii.  17.    Ambo,  both,  is  de- 
clined like  duo. 

3.  The  other  cardinal  numbers  from  quattuor,/oitr,  to  cen- 
tum, a  hundred,  are  undeclined  ;  the  hundreds,  beginning  with 
ducenti,  are  declined  like  the  plural  of  bonus  ;  mille,  a  thou- 
sand, is  an  indeclinable  adjective  (sometimes  noun) ;  the  ne^iter 
plural  millia  (sometimes  milia),  thousands,  is  a  noun,  declined 
like  mar  ia,  the  plural  of  mare. 

4.  The  plural  of  unus  is  used  with  nouns  which  have  only  the  plural 
number :  as,  fina  castra,  one  camp;  uni  Fbii,  the  Ubii  alone.    For  higher 
numbers,  such  nouns  use  the  distributives:  as,  blnae  litterae,  tiro  epistles. 
Trlni  is  used  for  terni. 

a.  BIni  is  used  to  express  a  pair:  as,  blna  manu  crispans  hastllia. 

5.  Multiplication  is  expressed  by  prefixing  numeral  adverbs  to  the  dis- 
tributives :  as,  bis  denis  navtbus,  with  twice  ten  ships. 

6.  In  compound  numbers  above  twenty  and  under  one  hundred,  either 
the  smaller  number  with  et  comes  first,  or  the  larger  without  et. 

7.  In  compound  numbers  above  one  hundred,  the  larger  with  or  without 
et  generally  precedes  the  smaller. 

8.  The  thousands  are  expressed  by  prefixing  the  cardinal  numbers  to 
millia,  or  (chiefly  in  poetry)  by  prefixing  the  numeral  adverbs  to  mille. 

9.  The  numbers  above  one  hundred  thousand  are  expressed  by  the 
numeral  adverbs  joined  to  centum  millia  (mllia)  or  centena  millia  (mllia). 
Centena  millia  is  often  omitted  after  the  numeral  adverb ;  thus,  decies,  may 
stand  for  decies  centena  millia,  one  million. 

10.  Unus  is  often  used  in  compound  numbers  for  primus :  as,  fino  et 
octogesimo  anno,  in  (his)  eighty-first  year. 

11.  The  numbers  compounded  with  eight  and  nine  are  commonly  ex- 
pressed by  a  subtraction  of  duo  and  unus  from  the  next  multiple  of  ten : 
as,  duodeviginti,  eighteen;    undecentum,  ninety-nine',    but  octodecim, 
novendecim,  etc.,  are  sometimes  found. 

12.  The  ordinal  numbers,  not  the  cardinal,  are  used  in  giving  a  date ; 
thus  in  the  year  1883  is  anno  millesimo  octingentesimo  octogesimo  tertio. 

13.  In  manuscripts,  thousands  were  sometimes  indicated  by  a  line  over 
the  Roman  numerals :  as,  LX,  sixty  thousand ;   and  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands by  lines  on  three  sides :  as,  |XX|,  two  millions. 

14.  Multiplicatives,  compounded  with  a  root  of  number  and  plic-,  an- 
swer the  question  quotuplex,  how  many  fold  ?    They  are  simplex,  simple  ; 
duplex,  twofold;  triplex,  quadruplex,  quincuplex,  septemplex,  decem- 
plex,  centuplex,  multiplex,  and  sescuplex  or  sesquiplex. 

15.  Proportionals  answer  the  question  how  much  more  f    They  are  sim- 
plus,  duplus,  triplus,  quadruplus,  quincuplus,  septuplus,  octuplus,  and 
sescuplus. 


NUMERALS.  59 

56.   NUMERAL  EXPRESSION  OF  FRACTIONS. 

The  Romans  expressed  fractions  in  words  in  several  ways : 

1.  All  fractions,  with  1  for  numerator,  are  denoted  by  ordinal  numbers, 
with  or  without  pars,  as  i,  dimidium  (not  dimidia)  or  dimidia  pars ;  J, 
tertia  or  tertia  pars ;  i,  quarta,  etc. 

2.  All  fractions  with  a  numerator  less  by  one  than  the  denominator  are 
denoted  by  the  cardinal  with  partes  simply,  as  §,  duae  partes ;  I,  tres 
partes ;  £ ,  quattuor  partes ;  I,  quinque  partes. 

3.  All  fractions  with  12  or  its  multiples  for  a  denominator,  are  denoted  by 
the  parts  of  an  as,  the  Roman  unit  of  weight,  length,  or  measure.    (The  as 
of  weight  is  called  libra,  of  length,  pes,  of  area,  jugerum.)    The  as  con- 
sisted originally  of  12  unciae,*  and  there  were  distinct  names  and  signs  for 
each  multiple  of  the  uncia  and  for  some  fractions  of  it. 

Unciae.  Value.    Sign. 

12  assis  or  as,  a  pound  (etc.),        .        .        .  .  1  as.  1 

11  deunx  (de-uncia),  an  ounce  off,       .        .  .  ^£     S  ~  —  — 

10  dextans  (desextans),  a  sixth  off,      .       .  .  £      S=  = 

9  dodrans  (dequadrans),  a  fourth  off,         .  .  f     S=:  — 

8  bessis  or  bes  (dui-assis),  a  two-as  f,       .  .  f      S  ^ 

7  septunx  (septem  unciae),  a,  seven-ounce,  .  -fa     S  — 

6  semissis  or  semis  (semi-assis),  a  half-as,  .  £     S 

5  quincunx  (quinque  unciae),  a  five-ounce,  .  &     ~—  — 
4  •  triens  (tri-),  a  third, |      —  rr 

3  quadrans  (quattuor-)  or  teruncius,  a  fourth,  .  \  — — 

2  sextans  (sexto-),  a  sixth, i  — 

li  sescuncia  (sesqui-uncia),  one  and  a  half  ounce,  %  S  — 

1  uncia,  an  ounce, ^  —  or  o 

\  semuncia,  a  half  ounce, -fa  S  or  £ 

£  sicilYcus,  a  Sicilian  farthing,  ^  3 

6  sextula,  a  little  sixth, ?V  ? 

Of  the  above,  the  sicilicus  was  not  used  till  imperial  times.  The  scri- 
ptSlum  or  scripulum  (yprf/ifw)  was  also  used  for  -fa  of  the  uncia,  =  ^  as. 
The  fraction  -fa  as  was  denoted  by  binae  sextulae,  or  duella ;  T£?  as  by 
dimidia  sextula,  or  duo  scripula. 

The  above-named  parts  of  the  as  were  used  as  mere  duodecimal  fractions, 
applicable  without  any  specific  concrete  meaning  to  any  unit.  Hence  heres 
ex  asse,  heir  to  the  whole  inheritance;  ex  triente,  to  a  third;  ex  dimidia 
et  sextante,  to  two-thirds  (a  half  and  a  sixth). 

4.  Other  fractions,  not  expressible  by  one  of  the  above  methods,  are  de- 

*  Hence  inch  as  well  as  ounce  is  derived  from  uncia. 

t  This  term  must  either  have  been  formed  when  the  as  was  equal  to  4  unciae ; 
or  be  short  for  two-thirds  of  an  as. 


60  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

noted  by  the  cardinal  for  a  numerator,  and  the  ordinal  for  the  denominator, 
as,  4,  quattnor  septimae ;  £,  septem  nonae. 

5.  Some  fractions  are  denoted  by  resolution  into  their  components,  as, 
|,  dimidia  et  quarta ;  ? ,  pars  dimidia  et  sezta ;  f ,  pars  tertia  et  nona ; 
£f ,  pars  tertia  et  septima. 

6.  Sometimes  further  division  is  resorted  to,  as,  ^5,  dimidia  quinta.  And 
dimidia  tertia  is  used  for  sexta ;  dimidia  quarta  for  octava. 

7.  Sesqui,  li,  is  used  only  in  compounds,  as,  sesquilibra,  H  ft»s. 

8.  Sesquialtera  ratio  is  li  :  1  : :  3  :  2.  [RoBY ;  KENNEDY. 

PRONOUNS. 
57, — 1.  The  Personal  Pronouns  are  thus  declined: 

FIEST    PERSON. 
Singular.  Plural. 

NOM.  ego,  /.  nos,  we. 

GEN.  mei,  of  me.  nostri  or  nostrum,  of  us. 

DAT.  mihl,  to  or  for  me.  nobis,  to  or  for  us. 

Ace.  me,  me.  nos,  us. 

ABL.  me,  from,  with,  or  by  me.  nobis,  from,  with,  or  by  us. 

SECOND    PERSON. 

NOM.  tu,  thou.  vos,  ye  or  you. 

GEN.  tuT,  of  thee.  vestri  or  vestrum,  of  you. 

DAT.  tibl,  to  or  for  thee.  vobls,  to  or  for  you. 

Ace.  te,  thee.  vos,  you. 

Yoc.  tu,  0  thou.  vos,  O  ye. 

ABL.  ie,from,  with,  or  by  thee.  vobis,  from,  with,  OT  by  you. 

REFLEXIVE. 
Singular  and  Plural. 

GEN.  siil,  of  himself,  herself,  itself,  or  themselves. 

DAT.  sibf,  to  or  for  himself,  etc. 

Ace.  se  or  sese,  himself,  etc. 

ABL.  se  or  sese,  from,  with,  or  &?/  himself,  etc. 

2.  The  nominative  and  vocative  of  the  reflexive  pronoun  are  wanting. 

3.  The  old  genitive  of  the  first  and  second  persons  was  mis,  tis. 

4.  MI  for  mini  is  found  in  Cicero  and  in  the  poets. 

5.  The  forms  med  and  ted  occur  as  accusatives  and  ablatives  in  Plautus. 


PRONOUNS.  61 

6.  Nostrum  and  vestrum  are  used  only  after  partitives.    They  are  the 
contracted  genitives  plural  of  the  possessive  pronouns  noster  and  vester. 
In  like  manner  mei,  tui,  and  sui  are  the  genitives  singular  of  the  neuter 
possessive  pronouns. 

7.  The  preposition  cum,  with,  is  affixed  to  the  ablative  of  these  pronouns 
in  both  numbers :  as,  mecum,  with  me;  vobiscum,  with  you. 

8.  The  suffix  -met  may  be  joined  (1)  to  ego  and  its  cases,  except  the 
gen.  plural:  as,  egomet,  I myself ;  (2)  to  the  cases  of  tu,  except  the  nom. 
sing. :  as,  vosmet,  ye  yourselves ;  (3)  to  se  and  sibi,  as  sibtmet. 

9.  The  suffix  -te  may  be  joined  to  tu :  as,  tute.     We  find  also  tutemet, 
thou  thyself. 

58.  The  Possessive  Pronouns  meus,  mea,  meum,  my  or  mine; 
tuns,  tua,  tuum,  thy  or  thine;  suus,  sua,  suum,  his  own,  her 
own,  its  own,  their  own ;  and  cujus,  cuja,  cujum,  whose,  whose  ? 
are  declined  like  bonus. 

1.  Meus  has  ml,  rarely  meus,  in  the  vocative  singular  mas- 
culine.    Tuus  and  suus  have  no  vocative. 

2.  The  Possessive  Pronouns  noster,  nostra,  nostrum,  our, 
and  vester,  vestra,  vestrum,  your,  are  declined  like  piger. 

3.  The  Demonstratives  have  no  corresponding  Possessives, 
but  their  Genitives  supply  the  want:  as,  ejus  liber,  his  book; 
eorum  opes,  their  wealth. 

4.  From  the  possessives  noster,  vester,  and  cujus  are  derived  the  Pa- 
trials,  nostras,  of  our  country ;  vestras,  of  your  country;  cujas,  of  what 
country  ? 

5.  The  intensive  suffix  -met  may  be  joined  to  the  cases  of  suus:  as, 
suamet  faota ;  the  suffix  -pte  to  the  abl.  sing,  of  the  possessive  pronouns : 
as,  meopte  consilio,  by  my  advice. 

59.  The  Demonstrative  Pronouns  are  thus  declined : 

I.  UNEMPHATIC. 
Is,  that;  or,  he,  she,  it. 

Singular.  Plural. 

Masc.  Fern.       Newt.  Masc.  Fern.  Neut. 

NOM.  ts,  ea,  fd,  e!  or  ii,  eae,  eS, 

GEN.  ejus,  ejus,  ejtts,  eorum,  earum,       eorum, 

DAT.  el,  -  el,  el,  els  or  ils,  els  or  ils,  els  or  iis, 

Ace.  eiim,  earn,  Id,  eos,  eas,  ea, 

ABL.  eo,  ea,  eo.  els  or  iis,  els  or  ils,  els  or  ils. 
6 


62 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


II.  EMPHATIC. 
Hie,  this  (near  me) ;  or,  he,  she,  it. 

Singular. 

Masc. 


Masc.  Fern.        Neut. 

NOM.  hie,  haec,    hoc, 

GEN.  hujus,  hujiis,  hujue, 

DAT.  hulc,  hulc,     hulc, 

Ace.   hunc,  hanc,    hoc, 

ABL.  hoc,  hac,      hoc. 


Plural. 

Fern.  Neut. 

hi,  hae,  haec, 

horum,     harum,  horum, 

his,  his,  his, 

hos,          has,  haec, 

his,  his,  his. 


Jfasc.  Fern.        Neut. 

NOM.  iste,  ista,     istud, 

GEN.  istius,  istlus^  istms, 

DAT.  isti,  isti,      isti, 

Aoc.   istiim,  istam,  istiid, 

ABL.  isto,  ista,      isto. 


Iste,  that  (near  you} ;  or,  he,  she,  it. 

Masc.              Fern.  NeuL 

isti,          istae,  ista, 

istorum,  istariim,  istorum, 

istis,         istis,  istis, 

istos,        istas,  ista, 

istis,         istis,  istis. 


Hie,  that  (yonder) ;  or,  he,  she,  it. 


Masc.  Fern.          Neut. 

NOM.  illS,  ilia,  illud, 

GEN.  illms,  illiiis,  illms, 

DAT.  ill!,  Uli,  illi, 

Aoc.  ilium,  illam,  illiid, 

ABL.  illo,  ilia,  illo. 


Masc.  Fern.  Neui. 

illi,  illae,  ilia, 

illoriim,  illarum,  illoriim, 

illls,  illis,  illis, 

illos,  illas,  illS, 

illis,  illis,  illis. 


60. — 1.  The  Definitive  Pronouns  are  thus  declined: 
Idem,  same. 


Mate.  Fern.          Newt. 

NOM.  idem,  eSdem,     Idem, 

GEN.  ejusdgm,  ejusdem,  ejusdem, 

DAT.  eldem,  eidfim,      eldem, 

Ace.  eundem,  eandfem,   Idem, 

ABL.  eodem,  eadem,     eddem. 


Masc.  Fern.  Neut. 

iidem(eidem),  eaedem,  eadem, 

eorundem,  earundem,  eorundem, 

eisdem  or  eisdem  or  eisdem  or 

iisdem,  iisdem,         iisdem, 

eosdem,  easdem,  eadem, 

eisdem  or  eisdem  or  eisdem  or 

iisdem,  iisdem,        iisdem. 


PRONOUNS.  63 

Ipse,  self. 

Singular.  Plural. 

Masc.        Fern.         Neut.  Masc.  Fern.  Neut. 

NOM.  ipse,     ipsa,     ipsum,  ipsT,  ipsae,  ipsa, 

GEN.  ipsliis,  ipsms,  ipsitts,  ipsorum,  ipsarum,  ipsorum, 

DAT.  ipsT,      ipsT,      ipsT,  ipsls,  ipsis,  ipsis, 

Ace.  ipsiim,  ipsam,  ipsum,  ipsos,  ipsas,  ipsa, 

Voc.  ipse,     ipsa,     ipsum,  ipsT,  ipsae,  ipsa, 

ABL.  ipso,     ipsa,     ipso.  ipsis,  ipsis,  ipsis. 

2.  The  demonstrative  affix  c  (for  ce)  is  added  to  iste  and  ille, 
making  a  pronominal  declension  as  follows  : 

Singular. 

Masc.        Fern.  Neut.  Masc.       Fern.  Neut. 

NOM.  istic,  istaec,  istoc  or  istuc,  illic,  illaec,  illoc  or  illuc, 
Ace.  istunc,  istanc,  istoc  or  istuc,  illunc,  illanc,  illoc  or  illuc, 
ABL.  istoc,  istac,  istoc.  illoc,  iliac,  illoc. 

Plural. 

NOM.  and  Ace.          istaec.  illaec. 

Ce  sometimes  appears  in  full :  as,  istiusce,  illosce,  etc. 

61.  The  adverbs  ibi,  hie,  illic,  and  istic  are  locative  cases  of  is,  hie, 
illto,  and  isttc  respectively. 

1.  Of  hie,  the  fuller  forms  hosce,  hasce,  hnjusce  are  found  in  Cicero ; 
the  nom.  pi.  fern,  haec  is  found  in  Varro,  Lucretius,  and  Vergil.    Plautus 
has  hioe  (nom.  sing,  m.),  hoce  (nom.  n.),  hisce  (nom.  pi.  m.),  hlbus  (dat. 
and  abl.  pi.). 

2.  Old  forms  of  ille,  in  Ennius,  Lucretius,  and  Vergil,  are  olli  (dat.  sing, 
and  nom.  pi.  m.),  ollis  (dat.  and  abl.  pi.),  and  in  Lucretius,  ollas,  olla, 
ace.  pi. 

3.  Ipse  is  also  called  an  intensive  pronoun.    It  has  an  old  nominative, 
ipsus.    It  is  compounded  of  is  and  pse  for  pte ;  and  the  is  was,  in  the  ear- 
lier times,  declined.    Thus,  Plautus  has  eumpse,  eampse,  eapse,  etc.    The 
phrase,  reapse,  i.  e.,  re  eapse,  in  reality,  occurs  in  Cicero.    Ipse  sometimes 
takes  the  suffix  met. 

4.  A  superlative,  ipsissimus,  is  found  in  the  comic  poets. 

5.  The  interjection  ecce,  lo  !  coalesces,  in  comic  poetry,  with  cases  of  is, 
ille,  iste :  as,  ecca,  eccum,  eccam,  etc. ;  eccilla,  eccillum,  etc. ;  eccistam, 
etc.    En,  lo  !  also  coalesces  with  ille  in  the  accusative  forms  ellum,  ellam, 
ellos,  ellas. 


64  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

62. — 1.  The  relative  pronoun  is  thus  declined : 
Qui,  who,  which. 

Singular.  Plural. 

Masc.          Fern.          Neut.  Masc.  Fern.  Neut. 

NOM.  qul,  quae,  quod,  quT,  quae,  quae, 

GEN.  cujus,  cujus,  cujus,  quorum,  quarum,  quorum, 

DAT.  cul,  cui,  cul,  qutbus,  quibus,  quibiis, 

Ace.    quern,  quam,  quod,  quos,  quas,  quae, 

ABL.  quo,  qua,  quo.  quYbus,  qutbus,  quibus. 

2,  The  interrogative  substantive  pronoun  is  thus  declined : 
(Juis,  who?  what* 

Singular.  Plural. 

Masc.  Fern.          Neut.  Masc.  Fern.  Newt. 

NOM.  quis,      (quae),     quYd,        qui,  quae,  quae, 

GEN.  cujus,     cujus,       cujus,       quorum,   quarum,  quorum, 

DAT.  cui,        cul,  cui,  quibus,     quibus,  qutbus, 

Ace.   quern,    quam,      quid,        quos,         quas,  quae, 

ABL.  quo,       qua,          quo.          quYbus,     quibus,  quYbus. 
3.  Quis  is  sometimes  feminine  in  the  comic  poets. 

4.  The  interrogative  adjective  pronoun,  qui,  quae,  quod, 
what  f  which  f  is  declined  like  the  relative  pronoun. 

5.  The  indefinite  substantive  pronoun,  quis,  (qua),  quid, 
any  one,  some  one,  is  declined  like  the  interrogative  quis,  but 
in  the  neut.  plur.  it  has  qua  as  well  as  quae. 

6.  The  indefinite  adjective  pronoun,  qui,  qua  or  quae, 
quod,  any,  some,  is  declined  like  the  relative  pronoun,  but  has 
qua  as  well  as  quae  in  the  singular  and  plural. 

7.  Exceptionally,  quis  is  found  as  an  adjective  pronoun,  and  qui  as  an 
interrogative  substantive  pronoun. 

8.  The  gen.  and  dat.  sing,  quoius  and  quoi  are  found  in  old  writers. 

9.  QuT  is  sometimes  found  as  an  abl.,  in  all  genders,  and  in  old  writers 
even  in  the  plural,  of  the  relative  and  interrogative  pronouns,  also  as  an 
adverbial  interrogative,  how?  and  occasionally  as  an  indefinite  adverb,  in 
any  way. 

10.  The  preposition  cum  is  affixed  to  the  ablative,  as  in  the 
personal  pronouns,  thus  :  quocum,  quacum,  quicum,  quibuscum. 


PRONOUNS.  65 

11.  A  nom.  and  ace.  plural,  ques,  occurs  in  Cato  and  Pacuvius;  a  dat. 
and  abl.  plural,  quls,  in  Varro,  Sallust,  and  Tacitus,  rarely  in  Cicero. 

12.  The  compounds  of  qui,  quis,  are  mainly  declined  like  them. 

13.  Aliquis,  some  one,  something,  a  compound  of  the  indefi- 
nite quis  with  the  stem  all-,  is  thus  declined  : 

Singular.  Plural. 
Masc.         Fern.             Neut.             Masc.  Fern.  Neut. 

NOM.  allquis,    allqua,  allquld,  allqui,  allquae,        allquS,, 

GEN.  alicujus,  alicujus,  alicujus,  aliquorum,  aliquarum,  aliquorum, 

DAT.  allcui,      allcui,  allcul,  aliqulbus,  aliqulbus,     aliqulbus, 

Ace.  allquem,  allquam,  allquid,  allquos,  aliquas,        allqua. 

ABL.  allquo,      allqua,  allquo.  aliqulbus,  aliqulbus.    aliqulbus. 

Note.— The  adj.  pronoun  has  generally  aliqui,  aliquod.   The  fern.  sing, 
aliquae  occurs  rarely. 

14.  Other  relative,  interrogative,  and  indefinite  com- 
pound pronouns  are : 

1.  a.  quisnam,  quiduam:  quinam,  quaenam,  quodnam,  who,  what  f 
b.  uternam,  utranam,  utrumnam,  whether  of  the  two  ? 

2.  ecquis,  ecqua,  ecquid:  ecqui,  ecquae,  ecquod,  any  one? 
So  numquis,  siquis,  ne  quis,  etc. 

3.  alteruter,  one  or  other ;  Gen.  alterutrlus  or  alter  rus  utrius,  etc. 

4.  quispiam,  quaepiam,  quippiam  (quodpiam),  any  one  (positively). 

5.  quisquam,  quicquam,  any  one  at  all  (with  non,  baud,  vix,  etc.). 

6.  quidani,  quaedam,  quiddam  (quoddam),  a  certain  one. 

7.  a.  quicumque,   quaecumque,    quodcumque,   whosoever,  whatsoever. 
(Poets  often  disjoin  the  affix  cumque  from  the  relative :  Quae  te  cumque 
domat  Venus.    Hor.) 

6.  utercumque,  utracumque,  utrumcumque,  whichever  of  two. 

8.  quisquis,  whosoever,  quidquid,  whatsoever;  Ace.  (quemquem),  quid- 
quid;  Gen.  (ouicuimodi) ;  Abl.  (quoquo,  quaqua,  quoquo),  etc.;  Plur., 
Dat.  and  Abl.  (quibusquibus).    Some  of  these  forms  are  rare. 

9.  a.  qui  vis,  quaevis,  quidvis  (quodvis),  any  you  will. 

b.  utervis,  utravis,  utrumvis,  whether  of  the  two  you  will. 

10.  a.  quilTbet,  quaelibet,  quidlibet  (quodlibet),  any  you  please. 
b.  uterlibet,  utralibet,  utrumlibet,  whether  of  the  two  you  please. 

11.  a.  quisque,  quaeque,  quicque  (quodque),  each.  (Plaut.  and  Ter.  use 
quisque  of  a  woman ;  and  in  other  compounds  quis  occurs  as  fern.) 

b.  unusquisque,  unaquaeque,  unumquicque  (-quodque),  each  one;  Ace. 
unumquemque,  unamquamque,  etc.    Gen.  uniuscujusque,  etc. 

c.  uterque,  utraque,  utrumque,  both,  each  of  two. 

15.  These  compound  pronouns  are  declined  as  the  simple  forms,  the 
undeclined  affix  or  prefix  accompanying  each  case:  Gen.  cujuscumque, 
utrius  vis,  Abl.  ecquo,  etc. 

6*  E 


66 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


!.£IP  ~^J>3'pS>>3~  £ 


PRONOMINAL  ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS. 


67 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


4.  The  following  are  the  chief  (pronominal)  adverbs  of  time : 


quandS,  jwhen?    quamdiu,    {how 

I  when.  (  as  long  as. 

quom,  cum,  when,   altquamdiu,    for   some 
nunc,  now.  length  of  time. 

tune,")  then  quousque,  till  when? 

turn,  J  adhuc,  hitherto, 

antehac,  before  this, 
posthac,  after  this, 
subinde,  immediately  afterwards, 
nondum,  not  yet. 
alias,  at  another  time, 
interim,  |  meanwMle 
interea,  J 

quondam, )  sometime,  i.  e.,  formerly, 
olim,         )     or  hereafter. 

VERBS. 


quoties,  {how  often? 
( as  often  as. 

toties,  so  often. 

all  quo  ties,  several  times. 

Tdentidem,  repeatedly. 

nonnunquam,  -\  sometimes 

aliquando,       >  (i.  e.t  not  un- 

quandoque,     J  frequently). 

interdum,    sometimes   (i.  e., 
occasionally). 

unquam,    ever   (after   nega- 
tives, etc.). 

usque,   ever  (of  progressive 
continuance). 


64.  Latin  Verbs  have  Two  Voices :  the  Active,  as  amo, 
JZouc,  and  the  Passive,  as  amor,  Jam  loved. 

1.  Deponent  Verbs  have  the  meaning  of  the  Active  Voice, 
but  the  forms  chiefly  of  the  Passive:  as,  venor,  I  hunt;  vereor, 
I  fear. 

2.  The  Passive  has  sometimes  a  reflexive  use,  like  the  Greek  Middle 
Voice :  as,  vertor,  I  turn  myself;  lavor,  I  wash  myself,  bathe. 

3.  A  Verb  is  called  Transitive  when  its  action  passes  on  to 
an  Object  in  the  Accusative  Case :  as,  puerum  laudo,  I  praise 
the  boy;  te  hortor,  I  urge  thee. 

4.  An  Intransitive  Verb  requires  no  Object :  as,  surgo, 
I  rise;  proficiscor,  I  set  out. 

5.  Intransitive  Verbs  are  not  used  in  the  Passive  Voice,  except  sometimes 
impersonally :  as,  surgttur,  lit.  there  is  a  rising,  i.  e.,  we  rise  or  they  rise. 

65.  The  Indicative  Mood  states  a  fact  or  condition  as  real 
or  absolute. 

1.  a  The  Subjunctive  Mood  states  a  fact  or  condition  as 
thought  of  or  contingent. 

b  The  Subjunctive  is  also  used  in  various  dependent  con- 
structions, in  which  it  is  rendered  in  English  by  the  Indicative. 

2.  The  Imperative  Mood  is  used  in  command  or  entreaty. 


MOODS  AND   TENSES.  69 

3.  The  Infinitive  Mood  is  strictly  a  verbal  noun,  express- 
ing action  or  state. 

4.  The  Participles  are  verbal  adjectives.    There  are  two  in 
the  Active  Voice,  the  Present  and  the  Future  ;  and  two  in 
the  Passive,  the  Perfect  and  the  Gerundive. 

5.  The  Gerund  is  a  verbal  noun,  of  the  second  declension 
neuter. 

6.  The  Supines  are  the  Accusative  and  Ablative  of  a 
verbal  noun  of  the  fourth  declension. 

66.  Of  the  Tenses,  the  Present,  Future,  and  Imperfect 
denote  Incomplete  Action  ;  the  Perfect,  Future  Perfect, 
and  Pluperfect  denote  Completed  Action. 

1.  The  Present  Tense  denotes  an  action  as  now  going  on. 
It  may  also  state  a  general  truth;  an  action  attempted;  a  past 
action,  in  lively  narration. 

2.  The  Future  represents  an  action  in  future  time,  either  as 
continuing,  or  as  indefinite  ;  I  shall  ~be  reading,  or  I  shall  read. 

3.  The  Imperfect  denotes  an  action  as  going  on  at  some  past 
time  referred  to.     It  may  also  state  a  customary  past  action;  an 
action  begun  (and  continued)  at  some  definite  past  time ;  an 
action  attempted  at  some  definite  past  time.     In  letters,  it  is 
often  used  where  we  should  use  the  present,  the  writer  putting 
himself  in  the  position  of  the  receiver. 

4.  The  Perfect  Definite  corresponds  to  our  Perfect  with 
have :  as,  I  have  seen ;  the  Historical  Perfect  or  Aorist 
states  a  past  action  simply  :  as,  I  saw. 

5.  The  Future  Perfect  corresponds  for  the  most  part  to  the 
same  tense  in  English,  but  is  used  more  frequently  and  pre- 
cisely. 

6.  The  Pluperfect  is  used  as  the  same  tense  in  English. 
In  epistolary  style  it  may  take  the  place  of  the  Latin  Perfect. 

7.  The  Present,  Futures,  and  Perfect  Definite  are  called 
Primary  Tenses ;  the  Imperfect,  Historical  Perfect,  and 
Pluperfect,  Secondary  Tenses. 

8.  The  tenses  of  the  Subjunctive  Mood  have  peculiar  uses,  which  will 
be  explained  under  Syntax. 

67.  The  Inflections  of  the  Verb  are  attached  to  the  Stem 
in  the  following  order  :  inflections  of  tense,  of  mood,  of  person, 
of  number,  of  voice. 


70  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

1.  The  simplest  forms  are  of  the  present  indicative  singular  active ;  thus, 
dat  is  the  third  person  singular,  present  indicative  active,  of  a  verbal  stem 
meaning  give.    It  is  composed  of  da-,  verb  stem,  and  t,  abbreviated  pro- 
noun of  the  third  person ;  and  thus  is  strictly  give-he  (she,  it),  for  which 
give-s  is,  originally,  the  English  equivalent,  but  English,  having  lost  its 
sense  of  the  meaning  of  the  final  s,  now  prefixes  in  addition  the  pronoun 
for  the  like  purpose. 

2.  Da-r-e-m-us  is  the  imperfect  subjunctive,  first  person  plural,  active 
voice  of  the  same  stem,  da-,  give.    The  sound  r  denotes  past  time,  e  the 
mood  of  thought  (instead  of  fact),  m  the  speaker  himself  (it  being  the  same 
m  as  in  our  word  me),  us  the  action  of  others  with  the  speaker.     Thus, 
daremus  analyzed  is  give-did-in-thought-I-they.    If  for  -us  we  have  -nr 
(daremur),  the  speaker  and  others  are  passive  instead  of  active. — ROBY. 

68.  The  Yerb  Stem  has  three  forms,  the  Present  Stem, 
the  Perfect  Stem,  and  the  Supine  Stem. 

1.  The  Present  Stem  is  often  identical  with  the  Verb 
Stem,   but  sometimes  more  or  less  modified.    From  it  are 
formed  all  the  tenses  and  verbal  forms  which  express  incom- 
plete action :  namely,  both  in  the  Active  and  the  Passive  Voice, 
the  Indicative  Present,  Imperfect,  and  Future;  the  Subjunctive 
Present  and  Imperfect ;  the  Imperative ;  and  the  Present  Infini- 
tive; also  the  Present  Participle  Active,  the  Gerunds,  and  the 
Gerundive. 

2.  The  Perfect  Stem  is  sometimes  identical  with  the  Verb 
Stem  and  with  the  Present  Stem,  but  usually  is  considerably 
modified.    From  it  are  formed  all  the  tenses  in  the  Active 
Voice,  denoting  completed  action :  namely,  the  Indicative  Per- 
fect, Pluperfect,  and  Future  Perfect;  the  Subjunctive  Perfect  and 
Pluperfect;  and  the  Perfect  Infinitive. 

3.  The  Supine  Stem  is  always  a  modification  of  the  Verb 
Stem,  and  from  it  are  formed  certain  verbal  nouns  and  adjec- 
tives, of  which  the  Future  Participle  Active,  the  Perfect  Passive 
Participle,  and  the  Accusative  and  Ablative  Supines  are  reckoned 
with  the  Verb.     The  Perfect,  Pluperfect,  and  Future  Perfect 
Indicative,  and  the  Perfect  and  Pluperfect  Subjunctive,  in  the 
Passive  Voice,  are  formed  with  tenses  of  the  auxiliary  verb 
esse,  to  be,  and  -the  Perfect  Passive  Participle;  the  Future 
Infinitive  Passive  is  formed  by  adding  to  the  Accusative  Supine 
the  auxiliary  iri. 

69.  The  Present  Indicative,  Present  Infinitive,  Per- 
fect Indicative,  and  Accusative   Supine  are  called  the 


TEE  VERB  SUM. 


71 


Principal  Parts  of  the  Verb,  as,  they  being  known,  all  the 
other  parts  of  the  Verb  may  be  formed  from  them. 

70.  The  Irregular  Verb  sum  is  formed  from  two  Roots,* 
es-  (Sanskrit  as,  Greek  £5<j-),  to  be,  and  fa-  (Sanskrit  bhu, 
Greek  <|>v-),  to  be  or  become. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Pres.  Ind.    Pres.  Infin.  Perf.  Ind.  Flit.  Part, 

sum,  lam;  esse,  to  be;  fuT,  I  have  been,  I  was;  futurus,  about  to  be. 


INDICATIVE. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


PRESENT   TENSE. 

SING.  1.  sum,  lam, 

2.  Ss,  thou  art  (you  are), 

3.  est,  he  (she,  it)  is, 
PLUR.  1.  sumiis,  we  are, 

2.  estKs,  you  are, 

3.  sunt,  they  are. 


sim,  /  may  be,  may  I 

sis,    [be,  I  am,  etc.f 

stt, 

simiis, 

sitts, 

sint. 


IMPERFECT. 


SING.  1.  erSm,  I  was, 

2.  eras,  thou  wast, 

3.  Srat,  he  was, 
PLUR.  1.  eramus,  we  were, 

2.  gratts,  you  were, 

3.  erant,  they  were. 


essSm,  /  should  be,  etc.f 

esses, 

essSt, 

essemiis, 

essetts, 

essent. 


FUTURE. 


SING.  1.  Src,  I  shall  be, 

2.  erts,  thou  wilt  be, 

3.  SrYt,  he  will  be, 
PLUR.  1.  erfmus,  we  shall  be, 

2.  erttts,  you  will  be, 

3.  erunt,  they  will  be. 


*  The  English  forms  am,  art,  is,  are,  belong  to  the  root  as ;  be  to  the  root  bhu. 

t  The  tenses  of  the  Subjunctive  have  many  different  translations  in  English, 
according  to  the  construction  of  the  sentences  in  which  they  stand.  Their 
various  uses  are  explained  under  Syntax  of  the  Subjunctive  Mood. 


72  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PERFECT    AND    AORIST. 

SING.  1.  ful,  /  have  been,  I  was,  fue'rYm, 

2.  fuistl,  thou  hast  been,  thou  wast,  fuerls, 

3.  fuit,  he  has  been,  he  was,  fuertt, 
PLUB.  1.  fuimus,  we  have  been,  we  were,  fuerlmiis, 

2.  fuistis,  you  have  been,  you  were,  fuerftts, 

3.  fuerunt  or  fuere,  they  have  been,  they  were,  fuerint. 

PLUPERFECT. 

SING.  1.  fue'ram,  /  had  been,        fuissem,  Ishould  have  been, 

2.  fu&ras,  thou  hadst  been,  fuisses,  [etc. 

3.  fuerat,  he  had  been,         fuisse't, 
PLUR.  1.  fueramus,  we  had  been,  fuissemiis, 

2.  fue'ratis,  you  had  been,   fuissetis, 

3.  fuerant,  they  had  been,  fuissent. 

FUTURE   PERFECT. 

SING.  1.  fuero,  /  shall  have  been, 

2.  fuerfs,  thou  wilt  have  been, 

3.  fuertt,  he  will  have  been, 
PLUR.  1.  fuerimus,  we  shall  have  beent 

2.  fuerltts,  you  will  have  been, 

3.  fuerint,  they  will  have  been. 

IMPERATIVE. 
PRES.  sing.  2.  &s,  be  thou. 
FUT.  2.  esto,  thou  shalt  be. 

3.  esto,  he  shall  be  or  let  him  be. 
PRES.  plur.  2.  estS,  be  ye. 
FUT.  2.  estote,  ye  shall  be. 

3.  sunto,  they  shall  be  or  let  them  be. 

INFINITIVE.  PARTICIPLE. 

PRES.  esse,  to  be.  FUT.  futurus,    -a,     iim, 
PERF.  fuisse,  to  have  been.  about  to  be. 

FUT.     futurus  essS,  to  be  about  to  be. 


SUM  AND  POSSUM.  73 

1.  A  form  of  the  pres.  subj.  siem,  sies,  siet  is  frequent  in  Plautus  and 
Terence.    The  pres.  subj.  fuam,  fuas,  fuat,  fuant  is  also  frequent  in  Plau- 
tus;  (G.  Curtius  regards  it  as  an  aorist.)    Forms  like  fuvit,  fuverit,  fu- 
visset,  from  the  old  Perfect  stem,  are  met  with  in  old  writers. 

2.  For  theimperf.  subj.,  forem,  fores,  foret,  forent  are  frequently  used. 

3.  Fore  is  often  used  for  the  future  infinitive. 

4.  In  old  writers  the  forms  escit,  escunt  occur,  for  erit,  erant. 

5.  Es  in  the  pres.  indie,  is  always  long  in  Plautus  and  Terence. 

6.  When  est  came  after  a  vowel  or  m,  the  e  was  omitted  in  speaking  and 
sometimes  in  writing  :  as,  nata  st,  natum  st,  oratio  st.    So  sometimes  with 
es  after  a  vowel,  and  perhaps  after  m :  as,  nacta's,  lignum's.    In  the  comic 
writers  a  short  final  syllable  in  s  coalesces  with  est :  as,  factust,  opust, 
similist,  forfactus  est,  opus  est,  sim/tlis  est;  and  occasionally  with  es :  as, 
naotu's,  simili's,  for  nactus  es,  similis  es. 

71.  Like  sum  are  inflected  its  compounds  absnm  (perf.  abfui  or  afui), 
adsum  or  assum  (perf.  adfui  or  affui),  desum  (de-est,  de-eram,  etc.,  pro- 
nounced dest,  deram,  etc.),  insum,  intersum,  obsum  (perf.  obfui  or  offui), 
praesum  (3d  sing,  praest,  often  written  praeest),  prosum  (which  inserts  d 
before  a  vowel :  as,  prodes,  prodero,  prodesse),  subsum  (no  perfect),  super- 
sum.    Of  these  absum  and  praesum  alone  have  a  present  participle, 
absens,  praesens. 

72.  Possum,  I  am  able  or  I  can,  is  a  compound  of  pot- 
(potis,   pote)  and  sum,  and  usually  retains  the  t  before  a 
vowel,  but  assimilates  it  to  a  following  s. 


PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Pres.  Ind.  Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind. 

possum,  posse,  potuT. 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

SING.  1.  possum,  I  can,  I  am  able,  posstm, 

2.  potes,  thou  canst,  possis, 

3.  potest,  he  can,  posstt, 
PLUR.  1.  possumus,  we  can,  posslmiis, 

2.  potestfs,  you  can,  possltts, 

3.  possunt,  they  can.  possint. 
7 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


INDICATIVE. 


IMPERFECT. 


SING.  1.  poteram,  /  could, 

2.  poteras,  thou  couldst, 

3.  poterat,  he  could, 
PLUB.  1.  poteramus,  we  could, 

2.  poteratis,  you  could, 

3.  poterant,  they  could. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


possSm, 


posset, 
possemiis, 
possetis, 
possent. 


FUTURE. 

SING.  1.  poteYo,  I  shall  be  able, 

2.  pSteris,  thou  wilt  be  able, 

3.  poterit,  he  will  be  able, 
PLUB.  1.  poterTmiis,  we  shall  be  able, 

2.  poteritis,  you  will  be  able, 

3.  poterunt,  they  will  be  able. 

PERFECT    AND   AORIST. 

SING.  1.  potuT,  I  have  been  able,  I  could,  potuerim, 

2.  pStuisti,  thou  hast  been  able,   thou    pStuerfs, 

couldst, 

3.  potuit,  he  has  been  able,  he  could,         potuerit, 
PLUR.  1.  potuimiis,  we  have  been  able,  we  could,   potuerimus, 

2.  potuistis,  you  have  been  able,  you    potuerftis, 

could, 

3.  potuerunt,  they  have  been  able,  they    potuSrint. 

could. 

PLUPERFECT. 

SING.  1.  potueram,  I  had  been  able,  pb'tuisse'm, 

2.  potueras,  thou  hadst  been  able,  potuisses, 

3.  potuerat,  he  had  been  able,  potuissSt, 
PLUR.  1.  potueramus,  we  had  been  able,  potuissemiis, 

2.  potueratis,  you  had  been  able,  potuissetts, 

3.  potuerant,  they  had  been  able.  potuissent. 


CONJUGATIONS.  75 

FUTURE   PERFECT. 

SING.  1.  pbtuero,  /  shall  have  been  able, 

2.  potueris,  thou  wilt  have  been  able, 

3.  potuerit,  he  will  have  been  able, 
PLUR.  1.  potuerimus,  we  shall  have  been  able, 

2.  potueritis,  you  will  have  been  able, 

3.  potuerint,  they  will  have  been  able. 

INFINITIVE:. 

PRESENT,  posse,  to  be  able. 
PERFECT,  potuisse,  to  have  been  able. 

PARTICIPLE. 
PRESENT,  potens,  powerful  (used  only  as  an  adjective). 

1.  Early  writers  have  sometimes  potesse  in  the  infinitive;  Plautus  and 
Terence  sometimes  possiem  and  possies  in  the  pres.  subjunctive.  The  full 
forms  potis  sum,  etc.,  are  found  in  prae- Augustan  poets ;  and  potis  and 
pote  are  even  found  as  predicates  without  sum.  Fotestur  occurs  once  in 
Lucretius.  Foterint  is  found  for  poterunt.  \ 

CONJUGATIONS. 

73.  There  are  Four    Conjugations,   distinguished  by  the 
vowel  before  -re  in  the  Present  Infinitive  Active.     This 
vowel  in  the  First  Conjugation  is  a  long,  as  amare,  to  love ; 

in  the  Second  Conjugation  is  e  long,  as  monere,  to  warn ; 
in  the  Third  Conjugation  is  e  short,  as  regere,  to  rule; 
in  the  Fourth  Conjugation  is  i  long,  as  audlre,  to  hear. 

FIRST  CONJUGATION. 

74.  In  the  First  Conjugation  the  Present  Stem  is  the  same 
as  the  Verb  Stem,  and  ends  in  a.     Its  final  vowel  is  united  by 
contraction  with  the  following  vowel :  as,  ama-o,  amo  j  ama- 
im,  amem.     The  regular  Perfect  is  formed  by  adding  -vi  to 
the  Verb  Stem,  the  regular  Supine  by  adding  -turn :  as,  voco, 
I  call,  Pres.  Inf.  voca-re,  Perf.  Ind.  voca-vi,  Supine  voca-tum. 


76 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


^ 


THE   FIRST   CONJUGATION. 

A-  VERBS. 
ACTIVE  VOICE. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Pres.  Ind.  Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind.  Supine, 

amo,  amare,  amavi,  ainatuin. 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

* 

PRESENT   TENSE. 

SING.  1.  am5,  I  love,  amem, 

2.  amas,  thou  lovest,  ames, 

3.  amat,  he  loves,  amet, 
PLUB.  1.  amamus,  we  love,  amemus, 

2.  amatis,  you  love,  ametis, 

3.  amant,  they  love.  ament. 

IMPERFECT. 

SING.  1.  amabam,  I  was  loving,  I  loved,  amarexn, 

2.  amabas,  thou  wast  loving,  etc.,  amares, 

3.  amabat,  he  was  loving,  etc.,  amaret, 
PLUB.  1.  amabamus,  we  were  loving,  etc.,  amaremus, 

2.  amabatis,  you  were  loving,  etc.,  SmaretTs, 

3.  amabant,  they  were  loving,  etc.  amarent. 

FUTURE. 

SING.  1.  amabo,  I  shall  love, 

2.  arnabis,  thou  wilt  love, 

3.  amabit,  he  will  love, 
PLUB.  1.  amabimus,  we  shall  love, 

2.  amabitis,  you  will  love, 

3.  amabunt,  they  will  love. 

SING.  PERFECT   AND   AORIST. 

1.  amavi,  I  have  loved,  I  loved,  amaverim, 

2.  amavisti,  thou  hast  loved,  thou  lovedst,  amaveris, 

3.  amavit,  he  has  loved,  he  loved,  amaverit, 


THE  FIRST  CONJUGATION. 


77 


INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PLTJE. 

1.  amavimus,  we  have  loved,  we  loved,  Smaverimus, 

2.  amavistis,  you  have  loved,  you  loved,  amaveritis, 

3.  amaverunt,  -ere,  they  have  loved,  they  loved,     amaverint. 


PLUPERFECT. 

SING.  1.  Smaveram,  I  had  loved, 

2.  amaveras,  thou  hadst  loved, 

3.  amaverat,  he  had  loved, 
PLUK.  1.  amaveramus,  we  had  loved, 

2.  amaveratis,  you  had  loved, 

3.  amaverant,  they  had  loved. 


r^-tft    Zx 

a'mavisse'm, 

amavisses, 

amavisset, 

amavissemus, 

amavissetls, 

Smavissent. 


FUTURE    PERFECT. 

SING.  1.  SmaverS,  I  shall  have  loved, 

2.  amaveris,  thou  wilt  have  loved, 

3.  auiaverit,  he  will  have  loved, 
PLUE.  1.  Smaverlinus,  we  shall  have  loved, 

2.  amaveritis,  you  will  have  loved, 

3.  amaverint,  they  will  have  loved.    • 


Singular. 

PEES.  2.  ama,  love  thou, 

FUT.    2.  amato,   thou  shalt  love 

or  do  thou  love, 
3.  amat6,  he  shall  love  or 
let  him  love. 


IMPERATIVE. 

Plural. 

amate,  love  ye, 

amatote,  you  shall  love  or  do 

ye  love, 
ainant5,    they    shall    love    or 

let  them  love. 


INFINITIVE. 

PEES.  Smare,  to  love, 

PEEF.  amavisse,  to  have  loved, 

FUT.    amaturus  esse,  to  be 

about  to  love. 
7* 


PARTICIPLES. 
PEES,  amans,  -antis,  loving,  ' 

FUT.   &maturus,-a,-um,  about 
to  love. 


78 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


GERUND. 

GEN.  amandi,  of  loving, 

DAT.  amando,  for  loving, 

Aco.  amandiim,  loving, 

ABL.  amando,  by  loving. 


SUPINE. 


Aoo.   amatum,  to  love, 
ABL.  amatu,  in  the  loving,  to  be 
loved. 


Pres.  Ind. 
amor, 


PASSIVE  VOICE. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Pres.  Inf. 
amari, 


Perf.  Ind. 
am  at  us  sum. 


INDICATIVE. 


PRESENT    TENSE. 


SING.  1.  amor,  lam  loved, 

2.  amaris  or  -re,  thou  art  loved, 

3.  amatur,  Tie  is  loved, 
PLUE.  1.  amamur,  toe  are  loved, 

2.  Smamini,  2/01*  are  loved, 

3.  amaritur,  f/^ey  are  loved. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

amer, 

Smeris  or  -re, 

ametur, 

amemiir, 

amemini, 

amentur. 


IMPERFECT. 

SING.  1.  amabar,  Twos  loved,  Smare'r, 

2.  amabaris  or  -re,  thou  wast  loved,  amareris  or  -re, 

3.  Smabatur,  he  was  loved,  amaretur, 
PLUE.  1.  amabamur,  we  were  loved,  amaremur, 

2.  amabamini,  you  were  loved,  amaremini, 

3.  amabantur,  they  were  loved.  amarentur. 


FUTURE. 

SING.  1.  Smabo'r,  I  shall  be  loved, 

2.  amaberis  or  -re,  thou  wilt  be  loved, 

3.  amabitur,  he  will  be  loved, 
PLUB.  1.  amabimiir,  we  shall  be  loved, 

2.  amabimini,  you  will  be  loved, 

3.  amabuntur,  they  will  be  loved. 


THE  FIRST  CONJUGATION. 


79 


INDICATIVE. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


PERFECT   AND   AORIST. 


SING.  1.  &matus  sum,  I  have  been  loved,  I  was  amatus  sim, 
loved, 

2.  amatus  es,  thou  hast  been  loved,  etc.,  amatus  sTs, 

3.  amatus  est,  he  has  been  loved,  etc.,  amatus  sit, 
PLUR.  1.  amati  sumus,  we  have  been  loved,  etc.,  amatT  simus, 

2.  &matT  est  is,  you  have  been  loved,  etc.,  amatT  sit  is, 

3.  amatT  sunt,  they  have  been  loved,  etc.  amatT  sint. 

PLUPERFECT. 

SING.  1.  amatus  eraxn,  I  had  been  loved,  amatus  essem, 

2.  Smatus  eras,  thou  hadst  been  loved,  amatus  esses, 

3.  amatus  erat,  he  had  been  loved,  a"matus  esset, 
PLUE.  1.  amati  eramiis,  we  had  been  loved,  amatT  essemus, 

2.  amatT  eratis,  you  had  been  loved,         SmatT  essetis, 

3.  amatT  erant,  they  had  been  loved.          amatT  essent. 

FUTURE   PERFECT. 

SING.  1.  amatus  er6,  I  shall  have  been  loved, 

2.  amatus  eris,  thou  wilt  have  been  loved, 

3.  amatus  erit,  he  will  have  been  loved, 
PLUE.  1.  amatT  ermms,  we  shall  have  been  loved, 

2.  amatT  eritis,  you  will  have  been  loved, 

3.  amatT  erunt,  they  will  have  been  loved. 


IMPERATIVE. 


Singular. 

PEES.  2.  amar§,  be  thou  loved, 
FTIT.   2.  amator,  thou  Shalt  be 

loved, 
3.  amator,  he  shall  be  loved 

or  let  him  be  loved. 


Plural. 
amaminT,  be  ye  loved, 


amantor,  they  shall  be  loved 
or  let  them  be  loved. 


INFINITIVE. 

PEES.  amarT,  to  be  loved, 

PEEF.  amatus  esse,  to  have  been  loved, 

FUT.    amatum  TrT,  to  be  about  to  be  loved. 


80  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


PARTICIPLES. 

PERFECT.      amatus,  having  been  loved. 

GERUNDIVE,  amandus,  to  be  loved  or  worthy  to  be  loved. 

Note  1.  —  In  all  the  conjugations,  the  auxiliaries  fai,  fueram,  fuero, 
fuerim,  fuissem,  and  fuisse  are  occasionally  found  instead  of  sum,  eram, 
ero,  aim,  essem,  and  ease :  as, 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PERF.           amatus  fui,  amatus  fugrim, 

amatus  fuisti,  etc.,  amatus  fugris,  etc., 

PLUP.  amatus  fugram,  amatus  fuissem, 

amatus  fugras,  etc.,  amatus  fuisses,  etc. 
FUT.  PEEF.  amatus  fugro, 

amatus  fuerls,  INFINITIVE. 

amatus  fugrit,  etc.  PEEF.  amatus  fuisse. 

The  meaning  of  compound  tenses  thus  made  is  sometimes  indistinguish- 
able from  that  of  the  more  common  forms ;  but  sometimes  it  differs  very 
much  as  the  auxiliaries  themselves  differ  in  meaning. 

Note  2.— Forem  is  sometimes  used  as  an  auxiliary  with  the  perfect  pas- 
sive participle,  forming  either  a  pluperfect  subjunctive,  like  essem,  or  a 
future  perfect  subjunctive.  In  a  very  few  cases  fore  is  used  instead  of  esse 
as  the  auxiliary  in  the  future  active  infinitive.  With  the  perfect  participle, 
fore  forms  a  future  perfect  infinitive  passive. 

Note  3. — The  participle  in  compound  tenses  is  varied  in  gender,  to  agree 
with  the  subject  of  the  verb.  (See  83,  1.) 

FORMATION   OF  THE  TENSES. 
From  the  present  stem,  ama-,  are  formed 

Active.  Passive. 

IND.  PRES.  amo,  amor, 

IMPEEF.  amabam,  amabar, 

Fur.  amabo,  amabor, 

SUBJ.  PEES.  amem,  amer, 

IMPERF.  amarem,  amarer, 

IMPERAT.  PEES.  ama,  amare, 

Fur.  amato,  amator, 

INF.  PEES.  amare,  amari, 

PEES.  PART.  aruans,  • 

GERUNDIVE.  amandi.  amandus. 


THE  SECOND    CONJUGATION.  81 

From  the  perfect  stem,  amav-,  are  formed  From  the  supine  stem, 

amat-,  are  formed 


Active. 

Passive. 

IND.  PEKF.                   amavi, 

amatus  sum, 

PLUP.                     am  aver  am, 

amatus  eram 

FUT.  PERF.           amavero, 

amatus  ero, 

SUBJ.  PERF.                 amaverim, 

amatus  sim, 

PLUP.                  amavissem, 

amatus  essen 

INF.  PERF.                   amavisse. 

amatus  esse. 

From  the  supine  stem,  amat-,  are  formed 

INF.  FUT.                      amaturus  ease, 

amatum  irT, 

FUT.  PART.                   amaturus, 

PERF.  PART. 

amatus, 

SUPINE.              (Ace.}  amatum.          (Abl.) 

amatu. 

75.  In  the  Second  Conjugation,  the  Present  Stem  is  the 
same  as  the  Verb  Stem,  and  ends  in  e  ;  the  Perfect  drops  the 
vowel  characteristic  of  the  Verb  Stem,  and  adds  ui  (as  mon- 
ui),  or  adds  vi  to  the  full  Stem  (as  dele-vi);  the  Supine  drops 
the  characteristic  and  adds  itum  (as  mon-itum),  or  adds  turn 
to  the  full  Verb  Stem  (as  dele-turn). 

THE   SECOND   CONJUGATION. 

E-   VERBS. 

ACTIVE   VOICE. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Pres.  Ind.  Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind.  Supine. 

mSneo,  m5nere,  monul,  mSnitum. 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

SING.  1.  mftneo,  I  remind,  mSneam, 

2.  m5n.es,  thou  remindest,  mSneas, 

3.  m5net,  he  reminds,  m6neat, 
PLUR.  1.  mSnemus,  we  remind,  mSneamus, 

2.  mfinetis,  you  remind,  m6neatis, 

3.  mSnent,  they  remind.  mSneant. 

F 


82 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


INDICATIVE. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


IMPERFECT. 

SING.  1.  mtfnebam,  I  was  reminding,  I  reminded,  mSnerem, 

2.  m6nebas,  thou  wast  reminding,  etc.  mSneres, 

3.  m6nebat,  he  was  reminding,  etc.  moneret, 
PLUB.  1.  mSnebamus,  we  were  reminding,  etc.  mSneremus, 

2.  mSnebatis,  you  were  reminding,  etc.  moneretis, 

3.  inftnebant,  they  were  reminding,  etc.  mSnerent. 

FUTURE. 

SING.  1.  mSnebo,  I  shall  remind, 

2.  m5nebis,  thou  wilt  remind, 

3.  monebit,  he  will  remind, 
PLUB.  1.  monebimiis,  we  shall  remind, 

2.  mSnebitis,  you  will  remind, 

3.  monebunt,  they  will  remind. 

PERFECT    AND    AORIST. 

SING.  1.  mftirai,  I  have  reminded,  I  reminded,  mSnuerim, 

2.  mSnuisti,  thou  hast  reminded,  etc.  mftnueris, 

3.  mSnuit,  he  has  reminded,  etc.  mSnuerit, 
PLUB.  1.  mSnuimus,  we  have  reminded,  etc.  mSnuerimus, 

2.  m6nuistis,  you  have  reminded,  etc.  inSnueritis, 

3.  mSnuerunt  (re) ,  they  have  reminded,  etc.    monuerint . 

PLUPERFECT. 

SING.  1.  m5nueram,  I  had  reminded,  momiissem, 

2.  monueras,  thou  liadst  reminded,  mSnuisses, 

3.  mSnuerat,  he  had  reminded,  mftnuisset, 
PLUB.  1.  mSnueramus,  we  had  reminded,  m6nuissemus, 

2.  monueratis,  you  liad  reminded,  mftnuissetis, 

3.  monuerant,  they  had  reminded.  monuissent. 

FUTURE  PERFECT. 

SING.  1.  mSnuero,  I  shall  have  reminded, 

2.  mSnueris,  thou  wilt  have  reminded, 

3.  mdnuerit,  he  will  have  reminded, 
PLTJR.  1.  m6nuerimus,  we  shall  have  reminded, 

2.  rnftnueritis,  you  will  have  reminded, 

3.  mdnuerint,  they  will  have  reminded. 


THE  SECOND   CONJUGATION.  83 

IMPERATIVE. 

Singular. 

PEES.  2.  mone,  remind  thou, 

FUT.    2.  mdnetS,  thou  slialt  remind  or  do  thou  remind, 
3.  mftnetd ,  he  shall  remind  or  let  him  remind. 

Plural. 

PEES.  2.  m5nete,  remind  ye, 

FUT.    2.  mftnetote,  2/e  shall  remind  or  $o  2/e  remind, 

3.  monent5,  t/iey  s/iaZZ  remind  or  Zei  t/iem  remind. 

INFINITIVE.  PARTICIPLES. 

PEES,  monere,  to  remind,  PEES,  monens,  reminding, 

PEEF.  monuisse,    to   have   re-  FUT.   monlturus,  about  to  remind. 

minded, 
FUT.   mSnituriis  esse,  to  be  about  to  remind. 

GERUND.  SUPINE. 

GEX.  monendi,  of  reminding, 
DAT.  monendo,  for  reminding, 
Aco.   monendura,  reminding,     mSnituin,  to  remind, 
ABL.  monendo,  by  reminding.    m5nitu,  in  the  reminding,  to  be 

reminded. 


PASSIVE  VOICE. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Pres.  Ind.                                 Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind. 

moneor,                             mSneri,  mSnitus  sum. 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT   TENSE. 

SING.  1.  mftneor,  I  am  reminded,  monear, 

2.  m5neris  (re),  thou  art  reminded,  monearis  (re), 

3.  monetur,  he  is  reminded,  moneatur, 
PLUE.  1.  monemur,  we  are  reminded,  m5neamur, 

2.  in5nemini,  you  are  reminded,  mSneammi, 

3.  m5nentur,  they  are  reminded,  mSneantur. 


84 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


INDICATIVE. 

IMPERFECT. 

SING.  1.  mftnebar,  I  was  reminded, 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


mSnerer, 

2.  mdnebaris  (re),  thou  wast  reminded,  monereris  (re), 

3.  mftnebatur,  he  was  reminded,  mfoieretur, 
PLUE.  1.  inSnebamiir,  we  were  reminded,         mSneremur, 

2.  mSnebamim,  you  were  reminded,      mSneremim, 

3.  monebantur,  they  were  reminded.      monerentur. 

FUTURE. 

SING.  1.  mSnebor,  I  shall  be  reminded, 

2.  moneberis  (re) ,  thou  wilt  be  reminded, 

3.  m5nebitur,  he  will  be  reminded, 
PLUR.  1.  monebimur,  we  shall  be  reminded, 

2.  monebimim,  you  will  be  reminded, 

3.  m6nebuntur,  they  will  be  reminded. 

PERFECT   AND    AORIST. 

SING.  1.  mSnitiis  sum,  I  have  been  reminded, 

I  was  reminded,  monitus  sim, 

2.  mSnitiis  es,  thou  hast  been  reminded, 

tJwu  wast  reminded,  monitus  sis, 

3.  mSnitus  est,  fie  has  been  reminded,  he 

was  reminded,  mSnitus  sit,  • 

PLUE.  1.  rnSniti  sumus,  wehavebeenreminded, 

we  were  reminded,  moniti  sixnus, 

2.  moniti  estis,  you  have  been  reminded, 

you  were  reminded,  m6mti  sitis, 

3.  mSniti  sunt,  they  have  been  reminded, 

they  were  reminded,  mSniti  sint. 

PLUPERFECT. 

SING.  1.  m5nitus  eram,  I  had  been  reminded,    monitus  essem, 

2.  mftnitus  eras,  thou  hadst  been   re- 

minded, monitus  esses, 

3.  mSnitus  erat,  he  had  been  reminded,  mSnitus  esset, 
PLUE.  1.  moniti   eramiis,   we    had    been   re- 
minded, mftniti  essemus, 

2.  moniti  eratis,  you  had  been  reminded,    m5niti  essetis, 

3.  moniti  erant,  they  had  been  reminded.    m5niti  essent. 


THE  SECOND    CONJUGATION.  85 

FUTURE   PERFECT. 

SING.  1.  mftnitiis  ero,  I  shall  have  been  reminded, 

2.  momtus  eris,  thou  wilt  have  been  reminded, 

3.  mftmtus  erit,  he  will  have  been  reminded, 
PLUE.  1.  mftniti  erimus,  we  shall  have  been  reminded, 

2.  m5mtl  eritis,  you  will  have  been  reminded, 

3.  m&niti  erunt,  they  will  have  been  reminded. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Singular. 

PEES.  2.  mftnere,  be  thou  reminded, 

FUT.    2.  mftnetor,  thou  shalt  be  reminded,  ' 

3.  mftnetor,  he  shall  be  reminded  or  let  him  be  reminded. 

Plural. 

PEES.  2.  mftnemml,  be  ye  reminded, 

FUT.    3.  mSnentor,  they  shall  be  reminded  or  let  them  be  reminded. 

INFINITIVE. 
PEES,  mftneri,  to  be  reminded, 
PEEF.  m5mtus  esse,  to  have  been  reminded, 
FTIT.   m5nitum  IrT,  to  be  about  to  be  reminded. 

PARTICIPLES. 

PEEF.  mftnitus,  having  been  reminded, 

GEETJNDIVE.  m5nendus,  to  be  reminded  or  worthy  to  be  reminded. 

FORMATION  OF  THE  TENSES. 
From  the  present  stem,  mone-,  are  formed 

Passive, 
moneor, 
monebar, 
monebor, 
monear, 
monerer, 
monere, 
monetor, 
moneri, 

monendus. 


Active. 

IND.  PEES. 

moneo, 

IMPEEF. 

monebam, 

FUT. 

monebo, 

SUBJ.  PEES. 

inoneam, 

IMPEEF. 

monerem, 

IMPEEAT.  PEES. 

mone, 

FUT. 

mone  to, 

INF.  PEES. 

monere, 

PEES.  PAET. 

monens, 

GEEUNDIVE. 

GEEUND. 

monendi. 

8 

86  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

From  the  perfect  stem,  monu-,  are     From  the  supine  stem,  monit-,  are 
formed  formed 

Active.  Passive. 

IND.  PERF.  monui,  monltus  sum, 

PLUP.  monueram,  monltus  eram, 

Fur.  PKRF.  monuero,  monltus  ero, 

SUBJ.  PERF.  monuerim,  monltus  aim, 

PLUP.  mouuissem,  monltus  essem, 

INF.  PEEP.  monuisse,  monltus  esse. 

From  the  supine  stem,  montt-,  are  formed 

INF.  Fur.  moniturus  esse,        monltum  iri, 

Fur.  PART.  moniturus, 

PERF.  PART.  monltus, 

SUPINES.  (Ace.)  monltum.         (Abl.)  monltu. 

76.  In  the  Third  Conjugation,  the  Present  Stem  is  some- 
times the  same  as  the  Verb  Stem,  and  sometimes  modified  (94). 
It  ends  (or  is  regarded  as  ending)  in  a  consonant,  or  in  u  or 
i.  The  endings  of  the  Perfect  and  Supine  are  various. 


THE  THIRD    CONJUGATION. 
CONSONANT  VERBS. 

ACTIVE   VOICE. 
»* 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Pres.Jnd.  Pres.  Infin.  Perf.  Ind.  Supine. 

rSgo,  r&gere,  rexT,  rectum. 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

SING.  1.  rSgo,  I  rule,  regam, 

2.  rSgis,  fhou  rukst,  regas, 

3.  rggit,  he  i-ules,  rSgat, 
PLUS.  1.  rggimiis,  we  rule,  regamus, 

2.  rggitis,  you  rule,  rggatis, 

3.  rggunt,  they  rule.  rfcgant. 


THE  THIRD   CONJUGATION.  87 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

IMPERFECT. 

SING.  1.  rggebam,  I  ivas  ruling,  I  ruled,  rSgerSm, 

2.  rggebas,  thou  wast  ruling,  etc.,  rSgeres, 

3.  regebat,  he  was  ruling,  etc.,  regeret, 
PLUE.  1.  rggebamus,  we  were  ruling,  etc.,  regeremus, 

2.  rSgebatis,  you  were  ruling,  etc.,  rggeretis, 

3.  regebant,  they  were  ruling,  etc.  rSgerent. 

FUTURE. 

SING.  1.  rggam,  I  shall  rule, 

2.  rgges,  thou  wilt  rule, 

3.  r&get,  he  ivill  rule, 
PLUE.  1.  rggemus,  we  shall  rule, 

2.  rggetis,  you  will  rule, 

3.  regent,  they  will  rule. 

PERFECT   AND   AORIST. 

SING.  1.  rexT,  I  have  ruled,  I  ruled,  rexerim, 

2.  rexisti,  thou  hast  ruled,  thou  ruledst,  rexeris, 

3.  rexit,  he  has  ruled,  he  ruled,  rexerit, 
PLUE.  1.  reximus,  we  have  ruled,  we  ruled,  rexerimus, 

2.  rexistis,  you  have  ruled,  you  ruled,  rexeritis, 

3.  rexerunt  or  (re),  they  have  ruled,  they  ruled,  rexerint. 

PLUPERFECT. 

SING.  1.  rexeram,  I  had  fried,  rexissSm, 

2.  rexeras,  thou  hadst  ruled,  rexisses, 

3.  rexerat,  he  had  ruled,  rexisset, 
PLUE.  1.  rexeramus,  we  had  ruled,  rexissemiis, 

2.  rexeratis,  you  had  ruled,  rexisset  is, 

3.  rexerant,  they  had  ruled.  rexissent. 

FUTURE  PERFECT. 

SING.  1.  rexero,  I  shall  have  ruled, 

2.  rexeris,  thou  wilt  have  ruled, 

3.  rexerit,  he  will  have  ruled, 
PLUE.  1.  rexerimus,  we  shall  have  ruled, 

2.  rexeritis,  you  will  have  ruled, 

3.  rexSrint,  they  will  have  ruled. 


88  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

IMPERATIVE. 
Singular. 

PEES.  2.  rSgS,  rule  thou, 
FUT.    2.  rggit6,  t/iow  s/iaft  rule  or  do  t/ww  ntfe, 
3.  rSgito,  fa  s/iaW  rwZe  or  let  him  rule. 

Plural. 

PEES.  2.  rggite,  rwfe  ye, 

FUT.   2.  rSgitote,  ye  s/iaZJ  rule  or  do  t/e  ritfe, 

3.  r&guntd,  t/ie?/  s/iaW  ntZe  or  let  them  rule. 

INFINITIVE. 
PEES,  rggere,  to  rwZe, 
PEEF.  rexisse,  to  have  rukd, 
Fur.    recturus  esse,  to  6e  a6o^  to  rule. 

PARTICIPLES. 
PEES,  rfcgens,  ruling,  Fur.  rectiirus,  aoout  to  rule. 

GERUND.  SUPINE. 

GEN.  rggendl,  of  ruling, 
DAT.  rggendo,  for  ruling, 

Aoc.  rggendum,  ruling,  Aoc.  rectum,  to  rwZe, 

ABL.  rggendo,  6?/  ruling.  ABL.  rectu,  in  t/ie  ruling,  to  be 

ruled. 

PASSIVE  V0ICE. 

PRINCIPAL    PARTS. 

Pres.  Ind.  Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Inf. 

rggor,  rggi,  rectus  sum. 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT   TENSE. 

SING.  1.  r£g5r,  lam  ruled,  rggar, 

.    2.  rggeris  (re),  tkou  art  ruled,  rggaris  (re), 

3.  rggitur,  he  is  ruled,  rggatur, 

PLUB.  1.  rggimur,  we  are  ruled,  rSgamur, 

2.  rggiminl,  you  are  ruled,  rggamini, 

3.  rgguntur,  they  are  ruled.  rggantur. 


THE  THIRD   CONJUGATION. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

rggerer, 

rggereris  (re), 

r&geretur, 

regeremur, 

regeremim, 

regerentur. 


INDICATIVE. 

IMPERFECT. 

SING.  1.  r&gebar,  I  was  ruled, 

2.  regebaris  (re),  thou  wast  ruled, 

3.  regebatur,  he  was  ruled, 
PLUE.  1.  regebamur,  we  were  ruled, 

2.  rggebamim,  you  were  ruled, 

3.  regebantiir,  they  were  ruled. 

FUTURE. 

SING.  1.  rSgar,  I  shall  be  ruled, 

2.  rggeris  (re),  thou  wilt  be  ruled, 

3.  rSgetur,  he  will  be  ruled, 
PLUE.  1.  regemur,  we  shall  be  ruled, 

2.  rSgemini,  you  will  be  ruled, 

3.  regentiir,  they  will  be  ruled. 

PERFECT    AND    AORIST. 

SING.  1.  rectus  Bum, I  have  been  ruled,!  was  ruled,  rectus  sim, 

rectus  sis, 
rectus  sit, 
recti  simus, 
recti  sit  is, 
recti  sint. 


2.  rectus  es,  thou  hast  been  ruled,  etc., 

3.  rectus  est,  he  has  been  ruled,  etc., 
PLUE.  1.  recti  sumus,  we  have  been  ruled,  etc., 

2.  recti  estis,  you  have  been  ruled,  etc., 

3.  recti  sunt,  they  have  been  ruled,  etc. 

PLUPERFECT. 

SING.  1.  rectus  eram,  I  fad  been  ruled, 

2.  rectus  eras,  thou  hadst  been  ruled, 

3.  rectus  erat,  he  had  been  ruled, 
PLUE.  1.  recti  eramus,  we  had  been  ruled, 

2.  recti  erat  is,  you  had  been  ruled, 

3.  recti  erant,  they  had  been  ruled. 


rectus  essem, 
rectus  esses, 
rectus  esset, 
recti  essemus, 
recti  esset  is, 
recti  essent. 


FUTURE  PERFECT. 

SING.  1.  rectus  ero,  I  shall  have  been  ruled, 

2.  rectus  eris,  thou  wilt  have  been  ruled, 

3.  rectus  erit,  he  will  have  been  ruled, 
PLUE.  1.  recti  erimus,  we  shall  have  been  ruled, 

2.  recti  eritis,  you  will  have  been  ruled, 

3.  recti  erunt,  they  will  have  been  ruled. 
8* 


90  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

IMPERATIVE. 
Singular. 

PEES.  2.  rggerS,  be  thou  ruled, 
FUT.    2.  rSgitor,  tfiow  shalt  be  ruled, 

3.  rggitor,  he  shall  be  ruled  or  let  him  be  ruled. 

Plural. 

PEES.  2.  rggimim,  6e  2/e  ruled, 

FUT.    3.  reguntor,  </ie?/  shall  be  ruled  or  Zet  them  be  ruled. 

INFINITIVE. 

PEES,  rggl,  to  5e  ruZec?, 

PEEF.  rectiis  esse,  to  fcare  6een  ruled, 

FUT.    rectum  iri,  to  be  about  to  be  ruled. 

PARTICIPLES. 

PEBF.  rectiis,  ruled,  having  been  ruled, 

GEEUNDIYE.  r£gendus,  to  be  ruled,  worthy  to  be  ruled. 

FORMATION    OF  THE  TENSES. 
From  the  present  stem,  reg-,  are  formed 

Active.  Passive. 


IND.  PEES. 

rego, 

regor, 

IMPEBF. 

regebam, 

regebar, 

Fur. 

regam, 

regar, 

SUBJ.  PEES. 

regam, 

regar, 

IMPEBF. 

regerem, 

regerer, 

IMPEBAT.  PEES. 

rege, 

regere, 

FUT. 

regito, 

regitor, 

INF.  PEES. 

regere, 

regi, 

PEES.  PAET. 

regens, 

GEE.  AND  GEEUNDIVE.  regendi.  regendus. 

From  the  perfect  stem,  rex-,  From  the  supine  stem,  rect-, 

are  formed  are  formed 

Active.  Passive. 

IND.  PEBF.  rexi,  rectns  sum, 

PLUP.  rexeram,  rectus  eram, 

Fur.  PEBF.  rexero,  rectus  ero, 

SUBJ.  PEBF.  rexerim,  rectus  sim, 

PLUP.  rexissem,  rectus  essem, 

INF.  PEBF.  rexisse,  rectus  esse. 


THE  THIRD   CONJUGATION.  91 

From  the  Supine  stem,  rect-,  are  formed 

Active.  Passive. 

INF.  FUT.  recturus  esse,          rectum  iri, 

FUT.  PAKT.  recturus, 

PERF.  PART.  rectus, 

SUPINES.  (Ace.}  rectum.         (Abl.)  rectu. 

77.  In  Verbs  in  -io  of  the  Third  Conjugation,  the  i  falls 
out  when  an  i  or  er  follows  :  as,  capis,  for  capi-is;  caperem, 
for  capi-erem.  They  are  inflected  as  follows  : 

ACTIVE  VOICE. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Pres.  Ind.  Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind.  Sup. 

capiS,  caper  e,  cepi,  captum. 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

w  PRESENT   TENSE. 

SING.  1.  capio,  I  take,  capiam, 

2.  capis,  thou  takest,  capias, 

3.  capit,  he  takes,  capiat, 
PLTJE.  1.  capimus,  we  take,  capiamus, 

2.  capitis,  you  take,  capiatis, 

3.  capiunt,  they  take.  capiant. 

IMPERFECT. 

SING.  1.  c&piebam,  I  was  taking,  I  took,  caperem, 

2.  capiebas,  thou  wast  taking,  thou  didst  take,  caperes, 

3.  capiebat,  he  was  taking,  he  took,  caperet, 
PLTTE.  1.  capiebamus,  we  were  taking,  we  took,          caperemus, 

2.  capiebatis,  you  were  taking,  you  took,          caperetis, 

3.  capiebant,  they  were  taking,  they  took.         c&perent. 

FUTURE, 

SING.  1.  explain,  I  shall  take, 

2.  capies,  thou  wilt  take, 

3.  c&piet,  he  will  take, 
PLUE.  1.  capiemus,  we  shall  take, 

2.  capietis,  you  will  take, 

3.  capient,  they  will  take. 

PERFECT  AND  AORiST,  /  have  taken,  I  took. 
cepi,  etc.  ceperixn,  etc. 


92 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


PLUPERFECT,  /  had  taken. 
cep§ram,  etc.  cepissSm,  etc. 

FUTURE  PERFECT,  /  shall  have  taken. 
cepero,  etc. 

IMPERATIVE. 


Singular. 
PEES.  2.  cape,^ 
Fur.    2.  c&pitg, 
3.  capita, 

INFINITIVE. 

PEES.  capere", 

PEEF.  cepisse", 

FCT.    capturus  ess§. 

GERUND, 
capiendi,  etc. 


Plural. 

capite, 

capitotS, 

capiunto. 

PARTICIPLES. 
PEES,  cap i ens, 

Fur.    capturus. 

SUPINES. 
Aco.  captum',        ABL.  captii. 


Pres.  Ind. 
capior, 


PASSIVE  VOICE. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
Pres.  Inf. 


cap!, 


INDICATIVE. 


Perf.  Ind. 
captus  sum. 


PRESENT  TENSE. 

K  1.  capior,  lam  taken, 

2.  caper  is  (re),  thou  art  taken, 

3.  capitur,  he  is  taken, 
PLUE.  1.  capimur,  we  are  taken, 

2.  capiminl,  you  are  taken, 

3.  capiuntur,  tliey  are  taken. 

IMPERFECT. 

SING.  1.  c&piebar,  I  was  taken, 

2.  capiebaris  (re),  thou  wast  taken, 

3.  capiebatur,  he  was  taken, 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

c&piar, 

c^piaris  (r§), 

capiatur, 

capiamur, 

capiamini, 

capiantur. 


caper§r, 
c^pereris  (re), 
caperetur, 


THE  THIRD   CONJUGATION.  93 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 


PLUK.  1.  capiebamur,  we  were  taken, 

2.  capiebamml,  you  were  taken, 

3.  capiebantur,  they,  were  taken. 


c&peremur, 

caperemim, 

caperentur. 


FUTURE. 

SING.  1.  capiar,  I  shall  be  taken, 

2.  capieris  (re),  thou  wilt  be  taken, 

3.  capietur,  he  will  be  taken, 
PLUK.  1.  capiemur,  we  shall  be  taken, 

2.  capiemini,  you  will  be  taken, 

3.  capientur,  they  will  be  taken. 

PERFECT  AND  AORiST,  I  have  been  taken,  I  was  taken. 
captus  sum,  cap  t  us  sim. 

PLUPERFECT,  /  had  been  taken. 
captus  eram,  captus  essem. 

FUTURE  PERFECT,  /  shall  have  been  taken. 
captus  erd. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

PEES.  2.  c&pere,  capiminT, 

FUT.   2.  capitor, 

3.  cap!  tor.  capiuntor. 


INFINITIVE. 

PEES,  capi, 

PEEF.  captus  esse, 

FUT.    captum  iri. 


PARTICIPLES. 

PEEF.  captus ,  a,  um. 

GEEUNDIVE.  capiendus,  a,  um. 


78.  In  the  Fourth  Conjugation,  the  Verb  Stem  and  the 
Present  Stem  end  in  I ;  to  this  termination  the  Perfect  adds 
vi,  and  the  Supine,  turn. 


94 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


THE   FOURTH   CONJUGATION. 

I-   VERBS. 

ACTIVE  VOICE. 


PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Pres.  Ind.  Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind. 

audio,  audire,  audivi, 


Supine, 
auditum. 


INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT   TENSE. 
SING.  1.  audio,  I  hear, 

2.  audis,  thou  ttearest, 

3.  audit,  he  /tears, 
PLTTB.  1.  audiraus,  we  hear, 

2.  audit  is,  you  hear, 

3.  audiunt,  they  hear. 

IMPERFECT. 

SING.  1.  audiebam,  I  was  hearing,  I  heard, 

2.  audiebas,  thou  wast  hearing,  etc., 

3.  atidiebat,  he  was  hearing,  etc., 
PLTJR.  1.  audiebamus,  we  were  liearing,  etc., 

2.  audiebatis,  yow  toere  hearing,  etc., 

3.  audiebant,  t/iez/  were  hearing,  etc. 

FUTURE. 

SING.  1.  audiam,  I  shall  hear, 

2.  audies,  thou  wilt  hear, 

3.  audiet,  he  will  liear, 
PLUE.  1.  audiemiis,  toe  s^aZZ  /tear, 

2.  audietis,  ?/ow  wiZZ  /tear, 

3.  audient,  they  will  hear. 


PERFECT    AND   AORIST. 

SING.  1.  andivi,  I  have  heard,  I  heard,  andivSrim, 

2.  audivistT,  thou  hast  heard,  thou  heardst,  audiveris, 

3.  audlvit,  he  has  heard,  lie  heard,  audlverit. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

audiam, 

audias, 

audiat, 

audiamus, 

audiat is, 

audiant. 


audirem, 

audires, 

audiret, 

audiremiis, 

audiret is, 

audirent. 


THE  FOURTH  CONJUGATION. 


95 


INDICATIVE. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


PLUB.  1.  audlvimus,  we  have  heard,  we  heard,         audlverimus, 

2.  audlvistis,  you  have  heard,  you  heard,       audiveritis, 

3.  audiverunt  (re),  they  have  heard,  they  ) 

heard.  i 


PLUPERFECT. 

SING.  1.  an  diver  am,  I  had  heard, 

2.  audiveras,  thou  hadst  heard, 

3.  audlverat,  he  had  heard, 
PLUE.  1.  audiveramus,  we  had  heard, 

2.  audlveratis,  you  had  heard, 

3.  audlverant,  they  had  heard. 

FUTURE  PERFECT. 

SING.  1.  audivero,  I  shall  have  heard, 

2.  audiveris,  thou  wilt  have  heard, 

3.  audlverit,  lie  will  have  heard, 
PLTTE.  1.  audlverimus,  we  shall  have  heard, 

2.  audiveritis,  you  will  have  heard, 

3.  audlverint,  they  will  have  heard. 


audivissem, 

audivisses, 

audivisset, 

audlvissemus, 

audivisset  is, 

audivissent. 


IMPERATIVE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

PEES.  2.  audl,  hear  thou,  audite,  hear  ye, 

FUT.    2.  audits,  thou  shalt  hear  auditote,  ye  shall  hear  or  dp 

or  do  thou  hear,  ye  hear^ 

3.  audits,  he  shall  hear  or  audiunto,  they  shall  hear  or 

let  him  hear.  let  them  hear. 


INFINITIVE. 


PARTICIPLES. 
PEES,  audiens,  hearing, 


PEES,  audire,  to  hear, 
PEEF.  audivisse,  to  have  heard, 

FUT.   auditurus  esse,  to  be  about   FUT.    auditurus,  about  to  hear, 
to  hear. 


GERUND. 


GEN.  audiendi,  of  hearing, 
DAT.  audiendo,  for  hearing, 


Aoo.  audiendum,  hearing, 
ABL.  audiendo,  by  hearing. 


96 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


SUPINE. 

Ace.  auditum,  to  hear, 
ABL.  auditu,  m  the  hearing,  to  be  heard. 

PASSIVE   VOICE. 


Pres.  Ind. 
audior, 


PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
Pres.  Inf. 
audiri, 


INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT    TENSE. 

SING.  1.  audior,  I  am  heard, 

2.  audiris  (re),  thou  art  heard, 

3.  auditor,  he  is  heard, 
PLFR.  1.  audimur,  we  are  heard, 

2.  audimim,  you  are  heard, 

3.  audiuntur,  they  are  heard. 

IMPERFECT. 

SING.  1.  audiebar,  I  was  heard, 

2.  audiebar  is  (re),  thou  wast  heard, 

3.  audiebatur,  he  was  heard, 
PLUB.  1.  audiebamur,  we  were  heard, 

2.  audiebamini,  you  were  heard, 

3.  audiebantur,  they  were  heard. 

FUTURE. 

SING.  1.  audiar,  I  shall  be  heard, 

2.  audieris  (re),  t/?«w  wntt  be  heard, 

3.  audietur,  /ie  will  be  heard, 
PLUB.  1.  audiemur,  we  shall  be  heard, 

2.  audiemim,  you  will  be  heard, 

3.  audientur,  they  will  be  heard. 


PERFECT    AND    AORIST. 

SING.  1.  auditus  sum,  I  have  been  heard,  I 
was  heard, 

2.  auditus  es,  thou  hast  been  heard,  etc., 

3.  auditus  est,  he  has  been  heard,  etc., 


Perf.  Ind. 
auditus  sum. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 


audiar, 

audiar  is  (re), 

audiatur, 

audiamur, 

audiamim, 

audiantur. 


audirer, 

audireris  (re), 

audiretur, 

audiremur, 

audiremini, 

audlrentur. 


auditus  sim, 
auditus  sis, 
auditus  sit, 


THE  FOURTH  CONJUGATION.  97 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PERFECT  AND  AORIST. 

PLUS.  1.  audit!  sumus,  we  have  been  heard,  etc.,     audit!  slmus, 

2.  audit!  estis,  you  have  been  heard,  etc.,       audit!  sit  is, 

3.  audit!  sunt,  they  have  been  heard,  etc.,      audit!  sint. 

PLUPERFECT. 

BING.  1.  auditus  eram,  I  had  been  heard,  auditus  essem, 

2.  auditus  eras,  thou  hadst  been  heard,  auditus  esses, 

3.  auditus  erat,  he  had  been  heard,  auditus  esset, 
PLUR.  1.  audit!  eramus,  we  had  been  heard,  audit!  essemus, 

2.  audit!  eratis,  you  had  been  heard,         audit!  essetis, 

3.  audit!  erant,  they  had  been  heard.          audit!  essent. 

FUTURE   PERFECT. 

SING.  1.  auditus  ero,  I  shall  have  been  heard, 

2.  auditus  eris,  thou  wilt  have  been  heard, 

3.  auditus  erit,  he  will  have  been  heard, 
PLTTE.  1.  audit!  erimus,  we  shall  have  been  heard, 

2.  audit!  eritis,  you  will  have  been  heard, 

3.  audit!  erunt,  they  will  have  been  heard. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Singular. 

PEES.  2.  audlre,  be  thou  heard, 

FUT.    2.  auditor,  thou  shalt  be  heard, 

3.  auditor,  he  shall  be  heard  or  let  him  be  heard. 

Plural. 

PEES.  2.  audlminl,  be  ye  heard, 

FUT.    3.  audiuntor,  they  shall  be  heard  or  let  them  be  heard. 

INFINITIVE. 

PE'ES.  audlrl,  to  be  heard, 

PEEF.  auditus  esse,  to  have  been  heard, 

FUT.    auditum  Irl,  to  be  about  to  be  heard. 

PARTICIPLES. 

PEEF.  auditus,  heard,  having  been  heard, 

GEEUNDIVE.  audiendus,  to  be  heard,  worthy  to  be  heard. 
9  G 


98 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


FORMATION   OF  THE  TENSES. 


From  the  present  stem,  and!-,  are  formed 


Active. 

IND.  PEES. 

audio, 

IMPERF. 

audiebam, 

Fur. 

audiam. 

SUBJ.  PRES. 

audiam, 

IMPERF. 

audlrem, 

IMPERAT.  PRES. 

audi, 

Fur. 

audlto, 

INF.  PRES. 

audire, 

PRES.  PART. 

audiens, 

GERUNDIVE. 

GERUND. 

audiendi. 

From  the  perfect  stem,  audiv-, 
are  formed 


IND.  PERF. 

PLUP. 

Fur.  PERF. 
SUBJ.  PERF. 
PLUP. 
INF.  PERF. 


Active. 

audivi, 
audiveram, 
audivero, 
audiverim, 

audivissem, 
audivisse. 


Passive. 

audior, 

audiebar, 

audiar, 

audiar, 

audirer, 

audire, 

auditor, 

audlri, 

audiendus. 


From  the  supine  stem,  audit-, 
are  formed 

Passive, 
auditus  sum, 
auditus  eram, 
auditus  ero, 
auditus  sim, 
auditus  essem, 
auditus  esse, 


From  the  supine  stem,  audit-,  are  formed 


INF.  Fur. 
Fur.  PART. 
PERF.  PART. 
Ace.  SUPINE. 
ABL.  SUPINE. 

auditurus  esse, 
auditurus, 

audltum. 

audltum  iri, 

auditus, 

auditu. 


79.  DEPONENT  VERBS. 

Deponent  verbs  have  the  inflections  of  the  Passive  Voice 
with  the  meanings  of  the  Active,  and  have  also  a  present  and 
future  participle  active  and  the  gerunds  and  supines. 

The  following  synopsis  gives  the  first  person  singular,  or 
other  leading  form,  of  the  verbs  precor,  pray;  vereor,  fear; 
sequor,  follow;  partior,  divide: 


DEPONENT  VERBS.  99 

DEPONENT  VERBS  OF  THE  FOUR   CONJUGATIONS. 

INDICATIVE   MOOD. 

1st  Conjugation.  2d  Conj. 

PRESENT,  precor,  I  pray  or  I  am  praying,  vereor, 

IMPERFECT,         precabar,  /  was  praying  or  I  prayed,  verebar, 

FUTURE,  precabor,  I  shall  pray,  verebor, 

PERF.  AND  AOR.,  precatus  sum,  I  have  prayed  or  I  prayed,  veritus  sum, 

PLUPERFECT,       precatus  eram,  7  had  prayed,  verttus  eram, 

FUTURE  PERF.,    precatus  ero,  I  shall  have  prayed.  verYtus  ero. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT,  precer,  /  be  praying,  I  pray,  etc.,  verear, 

IMPERFECT,         precarer,  I  were  praying,  I  prayed,  etc.,  vererer, 
PERF.  AND  AOR.,  precatus  sim,  I  prayed,  etc.,  veritus  sim, 

PLUPERFECT,      precatus  essem,  /  had  prayed,  etc.          veritus  essem. 


IMPERATIVE. 

PRESENT,  precare ,  pray  or  pray  thou,  verere, 

FUTURE,  precator,  thou  shalt  pray.  veretor. 


INFINITIVE. 

PRESENT,  precarl,  to  pray,  .  vererT, 

PERFECT,  precatus  esse,  to  have  prayed,  veritus  esse, 

FUTURE,  precaturus  esse,  to  be  about  to  pray.  veriturus  esse. 


PARTICIPLES,   ETC. 

PRESENT,  precans,  praying,  verens, 

FUTURE,  precaturus,  going  to  pray,  veriturus, 

PERFECT,  precatus,  having  prayed,  verttus, 

GERUND,  precandl,  of  praying,  verendl, 

GERUNDIVE,  precandus,  to  be  prayed,  verendus, 

Ace.  SUPINE,  precatum,  to  pray,  veritum, 

ABL.  SUPINE,  precatu,  in  praying.  ver itu. 


100 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 
DEPONENT   VERBS. 


INDICATIVE   MOOD. 

3d  Conjugation.  4th  Conj. 

PRESENT,  sequor,  I  foil  me  or  I  am  following,  partior, 

IMPERFECT,        sequebar,  I  was  following  or  I  followed,  partiebar, 
FUTURE,  sequar,  I  shall  follow,  partiar, 

PERF.AND  AOR.,  secutus  sum,  I  have  followed  or  I  followed,  partltns  sum, 
PLUPERFECT,      secutus  eram,  I  had  followed,  parti tus  eram, 

FUTURE  PERF.,  secutus  ero,  I  shall  have  followed.  partltus  ero. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT,  sequar,  /  be  following,  I  follow,  etc.,        partiar, 

IMPERFECT,        sequerer,  1 were  following,  1 followed,  etc.,  partirer, 
PERF.AND  AOR.,  secutus  sim,  I  followed,  etc.,  partltus  sim, 

PLUPERFECT,      secutus  essem,  I  had  followed,  etc.          partltus  essem. 


IMPERATIVE. 

PRESENT,  sequere ,  follow  or  follow  thou, 

FUTURE,  secutor,  thou  shalt  follow. 


partire, 
partitor. 


INFINITIVE. 

PRESENT,  sequT,  to  follow,  partirT, 

PERFECT,  secutus  esse,  to  have  followed,  partltus  esse, 

FUTURE,  secuturus  esse,  to  be  about  to  follow.  partiturus  esse. 


PARTICIPLES,   ETC. 

PRESENT,  sequens,  following,  partiens, 

FUTURE,  secuturus,  going  to  follow,  partiturus, 

PERFECT,  secutus,  /laving  followed,  partltus, 

GERUND,  sequendT,  of  following,  partiendi, 

GERUNDIVE,  sequendus,  to  be  followed,  partiendus, 

Ace.  SUPINE,  secutum,  to  follow,  partltum, 

ABL.  SUPINE,  secutu,  in  following.  partltu. 


DEPONENT   VERBS.  101 

80.  Some  Deponents  originate  in  the  reflexive  use  of  the 
Passive,  like  the  Greek  Middle:  as,  glorior,  I  boast  (myself); 
vescor,  I  feed  (myself).   Others  grow  out  of  Passive  verbs  :  as, 
graver,  I  grudge,  I  am  loth  (literally,  I  am  burdened). 

1.  More  than  half  of  the  Deponents  are  of  the  First  Conjugation,  mostly 
derived  from  nouns. 

2.  Some  Deponents  have  also  an  Active  form  with  a  similar  meaning : 
as,  punior  and  punio,  I  punish;  adulor  and  adulo,  I  fawn. 

3.  Many  Deponents  are  occasionally  used  in  a  passive  sense :  as,  popu- 
lari,  to  plunder  or  to  be  plundered;  partlri,  to  divide  or  to  be  divided. 

4.  The  perfect  participle  in  us  of  Deponent  verbs  is  often  used  in  a 
passive  sense:  as,  adeptus,  being  obtained,  as  well  as  having  obtained. 
The  passive  signification  is  confined  chiefly,  however,  to  material  objects : 
as,  adepta  llbertate,  but  not  adepto  marlto. 

5.  The  gerundive  is  found  only  in  transitive  verbs  (as  hortandus),  or  in 
the  neuter  in  impersonal  constructions  (as  moriendum  est  omnTbus). 

81.  Quasi-Passives.  —  A  few  verbs  of  active  form  are 
used  in  a  passive  sense,  and  are  called  Quasi-Passive  or  Neutral 
Passive  verbs.     These  are  exsulo,  /  am  banished,  vapulo,  I 
am  beaten,  flo,  when  meaning  lam  made,  veneo,  lam  on  sale, 
I  am  sold,  liceo,  I  am  put  to  auction  (but  liceor,  I  bid  at  an 
auction).    To  this  list  some  add  pereo,  lam  lost  or  destroyed. 

1.  Semi-Deponents.— The  intransitive  verbs   audeo,   / 
dare,  gaudeo,  /  rejoice,  soleo,  /  am  wont,  fido,  I  trust,  and 
flo,  J  become,  have  the  passive  form  in  the  perfect  and  its  cog- 
nate tenses  ;  hence  they  are  called  Semi-Deponents  or  Neuter 
Passives. 

2.  The  following  verbs  have  an  active  perfect,  with  a  passive  perfect 
participle,  active  in  sense :  ceno,  cenavi,  I  supped,  cenatus,  having  supped; 
juro,  juravi,  /  swore,  juratus,  having  sworn;  prandeo,  prandi,  /  dined, 
pransus,  having  dined;  nubo,  nupsi,  lit.,  I  put  on  the  veil,  i.  e.,  /  was 
wedded,  nupta,  wedded. 

3.  Other  deponent  perfect  participles  from  active  intransitive  verbs  are 
adultus,  grown  up,  from  adolesco ;  cretus,  sprung,  from  cresco ;  suetus, 
accustomed,  from  suesco ;  obsoletus,  out  of  date,  from  obsolesco ;  plact- 
tus,  pleasing,  from  placet) ;   potus,  having  drunk,  from  an  old  root,  po-; 
perosus,  hating,  from   perodi;   exosus,   hating  or  hating  utterly;  per- 
taesus,  tired,  from  pertaedet;  also  coalitus  (from  coalesco),  deflagratus, 
exoletus,  initus,  inveteratus,  propensus,  and  the  compounds  conjuratus, 
injuratus. 

9* 


102 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


SCHEME   OF  THE 
ACTIVE   VOICE. 


INDICATIVE    MOOD. 

Singular. 

Plural 

L 

2. 

3. 

1. 

2. 

3. 

g 

J 

thou     f 

K;,  etc. 

•z^e 

ye 

they 

1 

Awe 

lovest 

loves 

foye 

love 

love,  etc. 

am        -o 

-as 

-at 

-amus 

-atis 

-ant 

m6n      -eo 

-es 

-et 

-emus 

-erfs 

-ent 

reg        -o 

-18 

-tt 

-imus 

-itis 

-unt 

aud       -io 

-IS 

-it 

-Tmus 

-itis 

-iunt 

. 

was 

wast 

wcw 

were 

were    were  —  loving,  etc. 

w 

ama    -bam 

\ 

1 

mone  -bam 
regi    -bam 

t-bas 

-bSt 

-bamus 

-barfs 

-bant 

1-1 

audie  -bam 

J 

shall  ^ 

wilt 

will 

shall 

will 

will  —  love,  etc. 

H 

ama      -bo 
mone     -bo 

}-bis 

-bit 

-bimus 

-bitis 

-bunt 

I 

reg        -am 

Us 

-et 

-emus 

-etis 

-ent 

audi     -am 

J 

H 

loved 

lovedst 

loved 

loved 

loved 

loved,  etc. 

'  -< 

or  have 

hast 

has 

have 

have 

/utve  —  loved,  etc. 

p 
R 

amav    -T 

\ 

Rk 

monu    -T 

>  -istT 

-it 

-Tmus 

-istis 

-erunt  or  -ere 

W 

rex        -T 

* 

audiv   -T 

J 

g 

had 

hadst 

Ao<i 

had 

had 

had  —  loved,  etc. 

amav   -eram 

} 

9 

monu  -eram 

f      w 

>  -eras 

-erat 

-eramus 

-eratis 

-erant 

£3 

rex       -eram 

I 

£ 

audiv  -eram 

) 

• 

shall  ^ 

wilt 

will 

shall        will    will  —  have  loved. 

w 

amav   -ero 

J 

etc. 

1 

monu  -ero 
rex       -ero 

t-erts 

-erit 

-erimus, 

-eritis       -erint 

H 

,-         w    ^ 

audiv  -ero 

) 

SCHEME  OF  THE  FOUR  CONJUGATIONS. 

FOUR  CONJUGATIONS. 

PASSIVE  VOICE. 


103 


INDICATIVE    MOOD. 

Singular.                                             Plural. 
1.                     2.                      3.                         1.                    2.                   3. 
/               thou           he,  etc.               we                ye           they  are 
am               art                 is                  are               are      —  loved,  etc. 
am         -or         -arts             -atur             -amur        -aminl      -antur 
mon       -eot       -eris             -etur             -emSr        -emTni      -entur 
reg         -or         -eris             -Ttur             -imur        -imin!      -untur 
aud        -ior        -IrTs             -Itur             -Imur        -ImTni      -iuntur 

was               wast              was 
aina        -bar     \ 
mone      -bar     /,_««,        -  « 
rege       -bar    [  -tar-»  <e)    -iatur 

audie      -bar     * 

were            were       were  —  be- 
ing loved,  etc. 

-bamur      -baminT    -bantur 

shall               wilt             will 

Zne      -b?r     }  -ber-is  (e)    -bitur 

reg         "!r       }-er-i8(e)      -etur 
audi       -ar       J 

shall           will           will  be  — 
loved,^etc. 
-bnnur      -biminl     -buntur 

-emur        -emtnl      -entur 

was           was£           was 
or  Aave        hast            has 
amatus,  monitiis,  rectus,  audltus 

were       were         were  —  loved,  etc. 
have        have        have  —  been  loved, 
amatl,  monttl,  rectl,  audit!  [etc. 

sum              es               est 
(fui)          (fuistT)       (fuTt) 

sumus           estis           sunt 
(fuimus)      (fuistis)    (fuerunt,e) 

had         hadst        had 
amatus,  mointus,  rectus,  audltus 

had        had         had  —  been  loved, 
amatT,  morutl  rectl  audit!  [etc. 

eram           eras           erat 
(fueram)     (fueras)      (fuerat) 

eramus          eratts          erant 
(fueramus)    (fueratis)    (fuerant) 

shall           wilt        will 
amatus,  momtus,  rectus,  audltus 

shall        will  will  —  have  been  loved, 
amatl,  mointi,  rectl,  audit!  [etc. 

ero           erYs            ertt 
(fuero)      (fuerts)      (fuerit) 

erimus         eritis         erunt 
(fuerimus)   (fuerYtis)  (fuerint) 

104 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


SCHEME  OF  THE 
ACTIVE   VOICE. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

^ 

1              2 

3 

1 

2 

3 

1 

am        -em         -is 

-et 

-emus 

-etYs 

-ent 

PH 

mone    -am         -as 

-at 

-amus 

-atis 

-ant 

reg       -am         -as 

-at 

-amus 

-atis 

-ant 

audi      -am         -as 

-at 

-amus 

-atYs 

-ant 

g 

ama      -rem    \ 

1 

mone    -rem    I     _            w 
w        w       >  -res       -ret 
rege      -rem     i 

-remus 

-retis 

-rent 

~ 
H 

audi     -rem    / 

H  g 

amav    -erim  \ 

1 

monu    -erTm  (    w 
rex       -erim  f  ~* 

is      -erit 

-erlmus 

-eritTs 

-erint 

'1 

audlv   -erim  ) 

PLUPERFECT. 

amav-  -\ 

monu-  lissem-isses     -isset 
rex-_      f 

audlv-  ) 

-issemus 

-issetis 

-issent 

IMPERATIVE. 

PRESENT. 

FUTURE. 

S.  2.                PI.  2. 

S.2. 

S.  3.     PI.  2. 

PI.  3. 

love       thou        ye 

thou 

he        ye  ^ 

they 

am          -a       -ate 

am      -ato 

-ato    -atote 

-anto 

\    *r  <»- 

mon       -e        -etc 

mon    -eto 

-eto    -etote 

-ento 

•1  -1 

reg         -e        -ite 

reg      -ito 

-ito    -itote 

« 
-unto^ 

r  ^^ 

1     1  5   o 

aud        -I        -Ite 

aud     -Ito 

-Ito    -Itote 

-iunto 

)  HJ 

PRES.  (IMPF.) 
to  love,  etc. 
ama  -re 
mone  -re 
rege  -re 
audi  -re 


INFINITIVE. 
PERF.  (PLUP.) 
to  have  loved,  etc. 
amav  -isse 
monu  -isse 
rex     -isse 
audlv -isse 


VERB 
FUTURE. 

to  be  about  to  love,  etc. 
amat  -urns  ^ 
momt  -urus 
rect     -urus 
audit  -urus 


ease 


GERUNDS. 
loving,  of,  by,  etc.   t 
amand    -I  -o  -um 
monend  -I  -o  -um 
regend  -I  -6  -um 
audiend  -I  -o  -um 

SUPINES. 
o  love,    in  loving, 
amat  -um  -u 
montt  -um  -u 
rect     -um  -u 
audit  -um  -u 

PARTIC.  PRES 
etc.     loving,  € 
ama    -ns 
mone  -ns 
rege    -ns 
audie  -ns 

PARTIC.  Fur. 
tc.    about  to  Ime,  etc. 
amatur    -us  -a  -um 
monitur  -us  -a  -um 
rectur      -us  -a  -um 
auditur  -us  -a  -um 

SCHEME  OF  THE  FOUR  CONJUGATIONS. 


105 


FOUR  CONJUGATIONS. 

PASSIVE  VOICE. 


SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD. 


Singular. 
1.  2. 

am       -er        -er-is(e) 
mono 


Plural. 


reg 
audi 


-ar 
-ar 


-ar-is(e) 
-ar-ts(e) 

—      w     ,  w , 

•ar-is(e) 


3. 

-etur 
-atur 
-atur 
-atur 


l. 

-emur 
-amur 
-Emur 


2. 

-emmT 

-aniTnT 
-aminT 


-amur        -annni 


3 

-entur 
-antur 
-antur 
-antur 


ama  -rer 

mone  -rer 

rege  -rer 

audi  -rer 


-remur       -reminl       -rentur 


amatus,  moiutus,  rectus,  audltus 

sim  sis  sit 

(fuerim)        (fueris)        (fuerit) 


amatl,  monitT,  rectT,  audit! 

slmus  sltis  sint 

(fuerimus)  (fueritts)  (fuerint) 


amatus,  monitus,  rectus,  audltus 

v__ , _-/ 

essem          esses  esset 

(fuissem)      (fuisses)      (fuisset) 


amatT,  monitT,  rectT,  audit! 

essemus       essetis       essent 
(fuissenius)  (fuisset is)  (fuissent 


IMPERATIVE. 


PRESENT. 

S.  2.  PL  2. 

thou    ye — loved,  etc. 
ama          -re  -mtnl 

mone       -re  -mYnT 


be 


reg 
audi 


\x    v^  w      w    — 

-ere         -imini 
-re  -mtnT 


FUTUEE. 

S.  2.  S.  3.      PI.  3. 

thou  he       they 

ama    -tor  -tor    -ntor      ^ 

mone  -tor  -tor    -ntor      I 

reg      -Ytor  -it?r  -untor    f  ||  1 

audi    -tor  -tor    -untor    J   §  "§  -2 


INFINITE. 

PRES.  (IMPF.) 
to  be  loved,  etc. 
ama    -rl 
mone  -r! 
reg      -T 
audi  -rT 


INFINITIVE. 


PERP.  (PLUP.) 
to  have  been  loved,  etc. 
amat     -us  ^ 
monit  -us 
rect      -us  ( 
audit    -us  ) 


esse 


GERUNDIVE. 
meet  to  be  loved,  etc. 
amand  -us  -a  -urn 
monend  -us  -a  -urn 
regend  -us  -a  -urn 
audiend  -us  -a  -um 


FUTURE. 

to  be  about  to  be  loved,  etc. 
amat       -um  ^ 
monit      -um  I  -  - 

w         f 

rect         -um  ( 
audit       -um  J 
PARTIC.  PERF.  (PLUP.) 
loved,  etc. 

—  ,  v^         ^     ^ 

amat  -us  -a  -um 
monit  -us  -a  -um 
rect  -us  -a  -um 
audit  -us  -a  -um 


106  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

PERIPHRASTIC  CONJUGATIONS. 

82.  The  Participles  in  -urus  and  -dus  may  be  combined 
with  all  the  tenses  of  the  verb  sum.  Thus  are  formed  (1) 
the  Periphrastic  Future  Conjugation  and  (2)  the  Peri- 
phrastic Gerundive  Conjugation. 

1.  amaturus,  -a,  -urn  esse,  to  be  about  to  love. 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRES.  amaturus  sum,  /  am  about  to  love,  amaturus  sim, 

IMPERF.        amaturus  eram,  I  was  about  to  love,         amaturus  essem, 
Fur.  amaturus  ero,  /  shall  be  about  to  love, 

PERF.  AND  )  amaturus  ful,  /  have  been  (was)  about 

•  AOR.       )     to  love,  amaturus  fuernn, 

PLTJPERF.      amaturus  fueram,  /  had  been  about  to 

love,  amaturus  fuissem. 

Fur.  PERF.   amaturus  fuero,  I  shall  have  been  about  to  love. 

INFINITIVE. 

PRES.  amaturus,  a,  -um  esse,  to  be  about  to  love, 

PERF.  amaturus,  -a,  -um  fuisse,  to  have  been  about  to  love. 

2.  amandus,  -a,  -um  esse,  to  deserve  to  be  loved. 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRES.  amandus  sum,  I  have  to  be  loved,  amandus  snn, 

IMPERF.        amandus  eram,  /  had  to  be  loved,  amandus  essem, 

Fur.  amandus  ero,  I  shall  deserve  to  be  loved, 

PERF.  AND  )  amandus  fuT,  /  have  had  (I  had)  to  be 

AOR.      )     loved,  amandus  fnerim, 

PLUPERF.      amandus  fueram,  /  had  been  worthy  to 

be  loved.  amandus  fuissem. 

INFINITIVE. 

PRES.  amandus,  -a,  -urn  esse,  to  have  (or  to  deserve)  to  be  loved, 
PERF.  amandus,  -a,  -um  fuisse,  to  have  been  worthy  to  be  loved. 

83.  The  Supine  in  -um  is  found  in  comparatively  few  verbs, — not  more, 
it  is  said,  than  about  three  hundred, — but  is  often  mentioned  in  giving  the 
Principal  Parts  of  a  verb  whenever  there  is  a  perfect  participle  (or,  more 
properly,  the  neuter  of  the  participle  is  given  in  its  stead). 

1.  In  the  compound  tenses  of  the  indicative  and  subjunctive  passive 
the  participle  is  always  in  the  nominative  case,  but  may  be  used  in  both 
numbers  and  in  all  genders  to  suit  the  subject :  as,  amata  erat,  she  was 


SPECIAL  FORMS.  107 

loved;  negotium  confectum  est,  the  business  has  been  finished ;  laudati 
sunt  viri,  the  men  have  been  (or  are)  praised;  accepta  sunt  vulnera, 
wounds  were  received. 

2.  The  participles  in  the  compound  infinitive  are  used  either  in  the 
nominative  or  (commonly)  in  the  accusative  of  both  numbers  and  all 
genders. 

84,   SPECIAL  FORMS  AND  ABBREVIATIONS. 

1.  In  the  older  writers  the  present  subjunctive  is  occasionally  made  in 
-im,  -is,  -it,  etc. :  as,  edim,  edls,  edit,  edlmus,  edltis,  edint,  for  edam, 
edas,  edat,  etc.    So  comedim,  exedint.     Also  from  duo,  duim,  etc.,  and 
interduim,  perduim  (as,  Di  te  perduint  (=  perdant),  creduis,  etc.    This 
form  was  retained  in  sum  and  volo,  with  their  compounds. 

2.  The  imperfect  indicative  of  the  fourth  conjugation  is  often  made  by 
the  older  writers  in  -Tbam,  -Ibar,  instead  of  -iebam,  -iebar.    So  in  the 
future,  -Tbo  and  -Tbor  were  used  for  -iam  and  -iar  ;  Tbam  and  Tbo  remain 
in  eo,  queo,  and  nequeo. 

3.  The  termination  -re  (for  -ris)  in  the  second  person  singular  of  the 
passive  voice  is  very  common  in  all  tenses  except  the  present  indicative,  in 
which  it  is  rarely  found.    In  the  fourth  conjugation  it  is  almost  always 
avoided,  unless  in  deponents,  where  it  could  not  be  taken  for  the  infinitive 
active. 

4.  The  four  verbs  dlco,  duco,  facio,  and  fero  take  in  the  second  singular 
imperative  the  abbreviated  forms  die,  due,  fac,  and  fer ;  so  also  the  com- 
pounds of  these  verbs  (except  those  compounds  of  facio  which  change 
a  into  i ;  as,  effice,  confice).     The  old  writers,  and  the  poets  occasionally, 
use  the  full  forms  dice,  duce,  and  face.    Scio  has  scito  instead  of  sci,  and 
in  the  plural  usually  scitote. 

5.  The  active  form  of  the  future  imperative  was  often  used  by  early 
writers  instead  of  the  passive,  in  deponent  verbs :  as,  arbttrato,  for  arbi- 
trator; utunto,  for  utuntor.     The  forms  -nuno,  for  the  second  and  third 
persons  singular,  and  -mfnor,  for  the  second  person  plural  were  used  rarely. 

6.  The  antique  infinitive  often  ended  in  -ier  instead  of  -i :  as,  amarier, 
for  amari.    Vergil  and  Horace  sometimes  use  this  form,  as  well  as  older 
writers. 

7.  In  those  verbs  which  have  a  v  in  the  perfect  stem  a  contraction  often 
takes  place,  by  omitting  v  and  absorbing  the  first  vowel  of  the  termination 
in  the  final  vowel  of  the  stem :  as,  amasti,  for  amdvi-sti;  amasse,  for  amd- 
v£sse;  implessem,  for  implevi-ssem ;  nosse,  for  novi-sse;  mostis,  for  movi- 
stis;  summosses,  for  submovi-sses ;  isse,  for  ivi-sse;  amaram,  for  amdve- 
ram;  implero,  for  impleve-ro ;  complerunt,  for  compleve-runt :  norunt, 
for  nove-runt;  adjuris,  for  adjuve-ris  ;  admorunt,  for  admove-runt;  sirYs, 
for  slve-ris  (from  sino).     But  this  contraction  is  never  made  before  the 
termination  ere  (for  erunt)  in  the  third  plural  of  the  perfect  indicative. 


108  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

When  the  v  is  preceded  by  i,  the  v  is  frequently  omitted  without  contrac- 
tion: as,  finiero,  for  firiiv-ero ;  audieram,  for  audiv-eram ;  iero,  for  Iv-Sro ; 
ieram,  for  Iv-Sram.  The  i  also  before  v  is  sometimes  dropped :  as,  audisse, 
for  aud-iv-isse ;  audisti,  for  aud-iv-isti. 

8.  In  perfect  stems  ending  in  s  or  x  the  letters  is,  si,  iss,  and  sis  are 
occasionally  omitted  in  the  perfect  and  derived  tenses,  more  particularly 
in  verbs  of  the  third  conjugation  :  as,  dixti  for  dixisti;  evasti  for  evasisti; 
surrexe  for  surrexisse ;  erepsemus  for  erepsissemus ;  exstinxe  for  extinx- 
isse ;  divisse  for  divisisse ;  accestis  for  accessistis. 

9.  In  the  perfect  of  the  first,  third,  and  fourth  conjugations  we  sometimes 
find  such  contracted  forms  as  fumat,  cupit,  audit,  for  fumdvtt,  cuplvit 
(cupiit),  audlvit  (audiit).    So  rarely  in  the  first  person,  as  sepeli. 

10.  In  the  third  person  plural  of  the  perfect  indicative  the  form  in  ere 
is  less  common  than  that  in  erunt,  especially  in  prose. 

11.  An  older  form  of  the  termination  of  the  gerund  and  gerundive  in 
-undi,  -undus  is  common  in  Plautus,  Terence,  and  Sallust.    The  same  ter- 
minations, after  i,  and  in  the  words  gerundus  and  ferundus,  occur  fre- 
quently in  the  manuscripts  of  Caesar,  Cicero,  and  Livy.    The  verb  Ire,  to 
go,  and  its  compounds,  always  have  this  form :  as,  eundum,  adeundus. 
Some  law  phrases  also  :  as,  rerum  repetundarum ;  familiae  erciscundae ; 
finibus  regundis ;  in  jure  dicundo.    But  after  u  or  v  no  other  form  of  the 
suflix  is  found  than  -endi,  -endus. 

12.  In  the  older  language,  of  Plautus  and  ancient  laws  and  formularies, 
a  future  perfect  indicative  in  -so  (-sso),  subjunctive   perfect  in  -aim 
(-ssimj,  future  or  future  perfect  infinitive  in  -sere  (-ssere),  and  passive 
indicative  future  perfect  in  -situr  (-ssitur)  are  found. 

a.  Of  all  these  forms  faxo,  faxim  (=  facso,  facsim),  and  ausim,  almost 
alone  occur  after  the  time  of  Terence.    Instances  are  found  in  laws  and 
other  antique  documents  and  formulae  in  Livy  and  Cicero,  but  these  do  not 
belong  to  the  age  of  their  real  or  feigned  recorders. 

b.  These  forms  are  made  by  suffixing  s  to  the  verb-stem,  as  in  the  Greek 
future  and  aorist,  a  short  t  or  sometimes  e  of  the  stem  being  omitted.    The 
double  s  in  the  forms  from  a-  and  (a  few)  e-  verbs  is  either  a  mode  of  mark- 
ing the  place  of  the  accent,  or  due  to  a  mistaken  etymology,  as  if  the  form 
were  analogous  to  amasse,  from  amavisse.    Possibly  both  causes  may  have 
combined. 

85.   IRREGULAR   VERBS. 
1.  Fero*  (Sansk.,  bhar-;  Greek,  <j*p-)>  I  bear  or  bring.  „ 

The  peculiarities  of  this  verb  are,  (1)  that  in  the  forms  from  the  present 
stem  it  casts  out  i  before  s  and  t,  as  fers  (feris),  fertur  (feritur) ;  also  e 
between  r  and  r,  as  ferre  (ferere) :  (2)  it  takes  its  perfect  stem,  tul-,  from 

*  The  irregular  forms  are  given  in  italics. 


IRREGULAR   VERBS.  109 

the  root  tol-,  and  the  supine  stem  lat-  (for  t-lat-)  from  another  form  of  the 
same  root  (tal-  or  tla-). 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Pres.  Ind.,  Pres.  Inf.,  Perf.  Ind.,  Supine. 

ferO,  ferre,  tuli,  latum. 


INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT   TENSE. 

SING.   1.  fero,  I  bear,  feram, 

2.  fers,  thou  bearest,  feras, 

3.  fert,  he  bears,  fSrat, 
PLUR.  1.  fSrimus,  we  beart  feramiis, 

2.  fertis,  you  bear,  Gratis, 

3.  ferunt,  they  bear.  fSrant. 

IMPERFECT. 

SING.   1.  f&rebam,  /  was  bearing,  I  bore,      .       ferr$m, 

2.  ferebas,  thou  wast  bearing,  didst  bear,  ferres, 

3.  fSrebat,  he  was  bearing,  he  bore,  ferret, 
PLUR.  1.  ferebamus,  we  were  bearing,  etc.,          f err  emus, 

2.  ferebatis,  you  were  bearing,  etc.,  ferretis, 

3.  ferebant,  they  were  bearing,  etc.  ferrent. 

FUTURE. 

SING.   1.  fSram,  /  shall  bear, 

2.  feres,  thou  wilt  beart 

3.  feret,  he  will  bear, 
PLUR.  1.  feremus,  we  shall  beart 

2.  feretis,  you  will  beart 

3.  ferent,  they  will  bear. 

PERFECT   AND   AORIST. 

SING.   1.  tiilT,  /  have  borne,  I  bore,  tulerYm, 

2.  tiilisti  (etc.,  regularly).*  tiilerls,  etc. 

% 

*  Give  the  inflections  in  full :  tuli,  tulisti,  tulit,  tulimus,  tulistis,  tulerunt  or  Mere. 
10 


110  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PLUPERFECT. 

tuleram,  etc.  tulissem,  etc. 

FUTURE   PERFECT. 

tulero,  etc. 

IMPERATIVE. 

PRES.  2.  ftr,  bear  thou,  ferte,  bear  ye, 

FUT.  2.  ferto,  thou  shalt  bear  or  fertote,  ye  shall  bear  or 

do  thou  bear,  do  ye  bear, 

3.  ferto,  he  shall  bear  or  fZrunto,  they  shall  bear 

let  him  bear.  or  let  them  bear. 

INFINITIVE.  PARTICIPLES. 

PRES.  ferre,  to  bear,  PRES.  ferens,  bearing, 

PERF.  tfilisse,  to  have  borne, 

FUT.    laturus  esse,  to  be  about    FUT.    laturiis,  about  to  bear, 
to  bear. 

GERUND.  SUPINES. 

GEN.  ferendi,  of  bearing,  etc.          Ace.  latiim, 

ABL.  latu. 

PASSIVE  VOICE. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
Pres.  Ind.,  Pres.  Inf.,  Perf.  Ind., 

f eror,  fern,  latus  sum. 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT   TENSE. 

SING.  1.  feror,  I  am  borne,  ferar, 

2.  ferris,  thou  art  borne,  feraris  or  -re, 

3.  fertur-,  he  is  borne,  f eratiir, 
PLUR.  1.  ferirnur,  we  are  borne,  feramur, 

2.  f eriminT,  you  are  borne,  f eramYnl, 

3.  f eruntur,  they  are  borne.  ferantiir. 


THE  VERB  FERO.  Ill 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

IMPERFECT. 

SING.  1.  ferebar,  /  was  borne,  ferrZr, 

2.  f erebaris  or  -re,  thou  wast  borne,  ferrerls  or  -r$, 

3.  f  erebatiir,  he  was  borne,  ferrMur^, 

PLUR.  1.  ferebamiir,  we  were  borne,  ferremur, 

2.  f erebaminl,  you  were  borne,  ferreminl, 

3.  ferebantiir,  they  were  borne.          ferrentur. 

FUTURE. 

SING.  1.  f  erar,  I  shall  be  borne, 

2.  fereris  or  -re,  thou  wilt  be  borne, 

3.  feretiir,  he  will  be  borne, 
PLUR.  1.  feremiir,  we  shall  be  borne, 

%.  4%Tem¥x&fyfiu  will  be  borne, 
3.  ferentiir,  they  will  be  borne. 

PERFECT  AND  AORIST. 

latiis  siim,  etc.  latiis  sYm,  etc. 

PLUPERFECT. 

latiis  eram,  etc.  latiis  essSra,  etc. 

FUTURE    PERFECT. 

latiis  ero,  etc. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Singular. 

PRES.   2.  ferr%,  be  thou  borne, 

FUT.     2.  fertor,  thou  shalt  be  borne  or  do  thou  be  borne, 
3.  fertor,  he  shall  be  borne  or  let  him  be  borne. 

Plural. 

PRES.   2.  f erimim,  be  ye  borne, 

FUT.     3.  f  eruntor,  they  shall  be  borne  or  let  them  be  borne. 


112  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

INFINITIVE.  PARTICIPLES. 

PRES.  ferri,  to  be  borne, 

PEBF.  latiis  esse,  to  have  PEBF.  latiis,  borne,  having 

been  borne,  been  borne, 

FUT.    latum  irl.  GERUNDIVE,  ferendusjobeborne. 

Note  1. — In  like  manner  are  inflected  the  compounds  of  fero ;  as,  affero 
(adfero),afferre,  attuli,  allatum;  aufero  (ab-ffero),  auferre,  abstuli,  abla- 
tum ;  differo,  differre,  distuli,  dTlatum ;  refero,  referre,  rettnli,  relatum, 
etc. 

Note  2.— An  archaic  perfect,  tetuli,  is  found ;  also  tetulero,  tetulissem, 
tetulisse. 

2.  Flo  (Sansk.,  bhd;  Greek,  f  -),  I  am  niade,  become. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
Pres.  Ind.,  Pres.  Inf.,  Perf.  Part., 

fio,  fieri,  factus. 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

SING.    1.  fio,  I  am  made,  I  become,  fiam, 

2.  fis,  thou  art  made,  etc.,  fias, 

3.  fit,  he  is  made,  etc.,  fiat, 
PLUR.  1.  (flmiis),*  we  are  made,  etc.,  flamus, 

2.  (fitis),  you  are  made,  etc.,  flatls, 

3.  f mnt,  they  are  made,  etc.  flant. 

IMPERFECT. 

SING.   1.  f  tebam,  /  was  made,  I  became,  f  terem, 

2.  f  lebas,  thou  wast  made,  etc.,  f  leres, 

3.  fYebat,  f  lergt, 
PLUR.  1.  fiebamus,  fieremiis, 

2.  f  lebatfs,  f teretts, 

3.  fiebant.  fierent. 

*  Forms  in  parentheses  are  seldom  used. 


THE  VERB  FIO. 


113 


INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE; 

FUTURE. 

SING.    1.  flam,  /  shall  be  made,  I  shall  become, 

2.  fles,  thou  wilt  be  made,  thou  wilt  become, 

3.  f  let,  etc. 
PLUR.  1.  fiemus, 

2.  f  TetYs, 

3.  flent. 

PERFECT    AND   AORIST. 

SING.  1.  factus  sum,  I  have  been  made  (or  was 
made),  I  have  become  (or  became^), 

2.  factus  es,  thou  hast  been  made,  etc., 

3.  factus  est, 


-    ,w     v 


PLUR.  1.  fact!  sumus, 

2.  fact!  estis, 

3.  fact!  sunt. 


PLUPERFECT. 

factus  eram,  etc. 

FUTURE   PERFECT. 

facttis  Sro,  etc. 

IMPERATIVE. 
PRES.  2.  fT, 
FUT.    2.  (fits), 
3.  (fits). 


factus  sis, 
factfis  sit, 
fact!  simtts, 
fact!  sitis, 
fact!  sint. 


factus  essem,  etc. 


(fit§), 

(fltotS), 

(flunto). 


INFINITIVE. 


PARTICIPLES. 


PERF.  factus, 

GERUNDIVE,  f  aciendus. 


PRES.  fitri, 
PERF.  factus  esse, 
FUT.    factum  iri. 

Note  1.—  The  i  is  long  except  before  er  and  in  f  it.    In  fierem  and  fieri, 
•Plautus  and  Terence  often  have  the  i  of  the  stem  long. 

Note  2.—  Fio  (fu-i-o)  is  only  a  strengthened  form  of  fa-.    Hence  fore 
and  futurus  may  be  assigned  to  fio  as  well  as  to  sum.     Cf.  Cic.:  neque  ego 
ea,  quaefacta  sunt,  fore  cum  dicebam,  divinabam  futura  ;  and  quid  fiat, 
factum,  futurumve  sit.  —  [KENNEDY.] 
10*  H 


114 


GRAMMAR. 


Note  3.  —  Fit,  it  happens,  and  fiebat,  it  happeiwd,  are  often  used  im- 
personally. 

Note  4.  —  Fio  is  used  as  the  passive  of  facio,  from  which  verb  it  takes 
the  participles.  The  compounds  of  facio  with  verbal  roots  have  -fio  for 
their  passive  :  as,  calefacio,  /  warm,  calefio,  I  become  warm,  I  am  warmed. 
So  liqueflo,  satisf  To.  The  compounds  of  fio  with  prepositions  are  only 
some  forms  of  confieri,  defieri,  ecfieri,  interfieri,  superfieri,  and  infit, 
begins  (to  speak). 


3.  Volo  (Sansk.,  vri;  Greek, 


-),  I  wish,  I  will. 


PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
Pres.  Ind.,  Pres.  Inf.,  Perf.  Ind. 

volo,  velle,  volut 


volebam,  etc. 

vSlam, 
voles,  etc. 


IMPERFECT. 


FUTURE. 


INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT   TENSE. 

SING.   1.  volo,  /  wish,  will,  or  am  willing, 

2.  vis,  thou  wishest,  etc., 

3.  vult, 
PLUR.  1.  volumus, 

2.  vultis, 

3.  volunt. 


PLUPERFECT. 

volueram,  etc. 

FUTURE   PERFECT. 

vSluerS,  etc. 


velU, 

v%limus, 

vttitis, 


veltem,  etc. 


PERFECT   AND   AORIST. 

,  etc.  voluerlm,  etc. 


voluissem,  etc. 


VOLO  AND  NOLO. 


115 


INFINITIVE. 

PRES.  veltt,  to  wish,  etc. 
PERF.  voluisse. 


PARTICIPLE. 
PRES.  volens. 


Special  Forms.— Volt,  voltis,  were  used  before  the  time  of  Augustus. 
In  conversational  language  vin'  is  used  for  visne,  will  you  f;  sis,  sultis 
for  si  vis,  si  vultis ;  capsls  for  cape  si  vis.  (Compare  pergin'  for  pergisne.) 

4.  Nolo,  /  am  unwilling,  is  compounded  of  ne  (non)  with 
volo, 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 


Pres.  Ind., 

nolo, 


Pres.  Inf., 

nolle, 


Perf.  Ind., 

nolul. 


INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT   TENSE. 

SING.   1.  nolo,  /  am  willing, 

2.  non  vis, 

3.  non  vult, 
PLUR.  1.  nolumus, 

2.  non  vultis, 


3.  nolunt. 

nolebam,  etc. 

SING.   1.  (not  used), 
noles,  etc. 


IMPERFECT. 


FUTURE. 


PERFECT    AND    AORIST. 


noluT,  etc. 


PLUPERFECT. 


nolueram,  etc. 

FUTURE   PERFECT. 

noluero,  etc. 


nolim, 

noils, 

nollt, 

nolimus, 

nolitis, 

nolint. 


,  etc. 
noluissem,  etc. 


116 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 
IMPERATIVE. 


Singular. 

PRES.  2.  noli, 
.   FUT.    2.  nolito, 
3.  nolito. 


Plural. 

nolite,- 

nolitote; 

nolunto. 


PARTICIPLE. 
PEES,  nolens  (rare). 


INFINITIVE. 
PRES.  nolle, 
PERF.  noluisse'. 

Special  Forms.— For  non  vis,  non  vult,  Plautus  has  frequently  nevis, 
nevult;  for  nolis,  nolit,  nolint,  nollem,  he  has  sometimes  the  fall  forms 
non  velis,  etc. 

5.  Malo,  /  am  more  willing,  I  prefer,  is  compounded  of 
magis  (mage,  ma)  with  volo. 

PRINCIPAL,   PARTS. 
Pres.  Ind.,  Pres.  Inf.,  Perf.  Ind., 

malo,  malle, 


INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT    TENSE. 

SING.    1.  malo,  I  prefer, 

2.  mavis, 

3.  mavult, 
PLUR.  1.  mdlumus, 

2.  mavultis, 

3.  malunt. 


malebam,  etc. 

SING.   1.  (not  used), 
males,  etc. 


IMPERFECT. 


FUTURE. 


malul. 
SUBJUNCTIVE. 

malim, 

malls, 

malit, 

malimus, 

malitis, 

indlint. 

mallem,  etc. 


PERFECT    AND    AORIST. 

malm,  etc.  maluertm,  etc. 

PLUPERFECT. 

malueram,  etc.  maluissem,  etc. 


maluero,  etc. 


FUTURE   PERFECT. 


THE   VERB  EO.  117 

INFINITIVE. 
PRES.  mallS.  PERP.  maluissS. 

PARTICIPLE  (not  used). 

Special  Forms  in  old  Latin  are  mavolo,  mavolet,  mavelim,  mavelis, 
mavelit,  mavellem,  mavelle. 

6.  Pervolo,  I  wish  much,  has  pervelim,  pervellem,  pervelle. 

7.  The  root  of  eo  (for  To),  to  go,  is  T-  (found  both  in  San- 
skrit and  Greek),  which  becomes  e  before  a,  o,  u. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
Pres.  Ind.,  Pres.  Inf.,  Perf.,  Supine. 

eB,  Ire,      .       IvT  or  TT,  itum. 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT    TENSE. 

SING.  1.  &?,  I  go,  earn, 

2.  Is,  eas, 

3.  it,  eat, 
PLUR.  1.  Tmiis,  edmus, 

2.  itis,  eatis, 

3.  Vunt.  eant. 

IMPERFECT. 

IbSm,  etc.  irSni,  etc. 

FUTURE. 

Tbo, 
ibis,  etc. 

PERFECT   AND   AORIST. 

TvT  or  ii,  Tvertm  or  ierim, 

Tvisti  or  istT,  etc.  Tverls  or  iSrfs,  etc. 

PLUPERFECT. 

Tv^rSm  or  ierSm,  etc.  IvissSm  or  issem,  etc. 

FUTURE   PERFECT. 

ivero  or  iero,  etc. 


118  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

IMPERATIVE. 
Singular.  Plural. 

PRES.  2.  T,  It£, 

FUT.   2.  ito,  Itote^ 

3.  ito.  eunto. 

INFINITIVE.  PARTICIPLES. 

PRES.  ire,  PRES.  iens,  Gen.  euntls, 

PERF.  Tvisse  or  isse,  FUT.  fturiis, 

FUT.    Iturus  esse.  GERUNDIVE,  eundus  (in  compo- 

sition). 
GERUND. 

GEN.  eundi,      DAT.  eundo,     '  Ace.  eundum,      ABL.  eundo. 

SUPINES. 
Acc.  ftum,  ABL.  ftu. 

1.  The  v  is  usually  dropped  by  eo  and  its  compounds :  as,  ii,  ieram, 
issem,  redii,  redistis,  redisse,  etc. 

2.  The  impersonal  passive  ttur,  Ytum  est,  TrT,  etc.,  is  often  used. 
Iri  with  the  supine  supplies  a  future  passive  to  verbs.   The  active  eo  also 
with  the  supine  expresses  a  future  action  :  thus,  injurias  istas  ultum  eunt, 
they  are  going  to  avenge  those  wrongs;  aiunt  injurias  istas  ultum  iri,  they 
say  that  those  wrongs  are  going  to  be  avenged  (literally,  that  there  is  a  tend- 
ing to  avenge  those  wrongs'). 

3.  Transitive  compounds  of  eo  have  a  personal  passive  voice,  as  adeor. 

4.  Besides  the  form  Tbit,  a  future  in  -iet  is  sometimes  found  in  com- 
pounds :  as,  veniet  (or  vaeniet)  from  veneo,  to  be  sold  ;  transiet,  etc. 

5.  Ambio,  I  go  round,  I  canvas,  is  the  only  compound  of  eo  which  is  in- 
flected regularly,  like  audio. 

8.  Edo  (Sansk.,  ad,  Greek,  £<$-),  lecrt,  is  inflected  regularly, 
and  also  has  some  contracted  forms,  which  omit  the  vowel  after 
the  root,  and  either  change  d  to  s  or  omit  it.  In  the  present 
subjunctive,  in  addition  to  the  regular  edam,  edas,  etc.,  it  has 
a  form  with  the  old  termination  im,  found  also  in  sim  and 
velim.  The  Principal  Parts  are 

Pres.  Ind.,  Pres.  Inf.,  Perf.,  Perf.  Part. 

edo,  edere  or  esse,  edl,  esus. 


DEFECTIVE   VERBS.  119 

The  following  are  the  anomalous  forms  : 

IND.  PEES.  Sing.  2.  es,  thou  eatest, 

3.  est,  he  eats, 
Plur..  2.  estis,  you  eat. 
SUBJ.  PEES.  Sing.  1.  edim,  may  I  eat, 

2.  edis,  etc. 

3.  edit, 
Plur.  1.  edimus, 

2.  editis, 

3.  edint. 
SUBJ.  IMP.  essem,  etc. 

IMPEEAT.  Sing.  2.  es,  Plur.  2.  este, 

2  and  3.  est5.  2  and  3,  estotg. 

INF.  PEES.  esse. 

PASSIVE.  estur  (for  editur), 

essetur  (for  ederetur). 

Note.— The  contracted  forms  are  found  also  from  comedo,  and  some 
{exest,  exesse,  exesset)  from  exedo. 


86.  DEFECTIVE  VERBS. 
1.  Aio,  Isay,  say  yes,  affirm. 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PKESENT  TENSE. 

SING,  a-io,  als,  Sit,  a-i&s,  a-iat, 

PLUR.  a-iunt.  a-iant. 

IMPERFECT. 

SING,  a-iebam,  a-iebas,  a-iebat, 

PLUR.  a-iebamus,  a-iebatis,  a-iebant. 

IMPERATIVE  PRESENT,  ai  (rare). 

PRESENT  PARTICIPLE,  a-iens,  a-ientis  (as  adjective). 

Note  1. — The  i  is  consQnans  (pronounced  like  English  y),  except  in  the 
second  and  third  persons  singular  of  the  present  indicative. 

Note  2.— Ain'tu  (=  aisne  tu),  do  you  say  so  ?  was  a  familiar  expres- 
sion. 


120 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


2.  Inquam,  /  say. 

PRES.  inquam,  inquls,    inqult,       inqulnras,  inqultis,  inqulunt. 

SUBJ.  PRES.  inqulat. 

IND.  IMPERF.  inquiebat. 

Fur.  inqules,  inqulet. 

PERF.  (inquii),  inquisti,  inquit. 

IMPERAT.  FUT.  inqulto. 

Note.  —  Inquam  is  used  in  direct  quotations,  in  which  it  is  inserted  paren- 
thetically. 

3.  Queo,  I  cew,  and  Nequeo,  J  cannot. 


INDICATIVE.             SUBJUNCTIVE. 

IND.                   SUBJ. 

PRES.  1.        qu6o, 

qugam, 

ngqueo,                 n6qu6am, 

2. 

queas, 

non  quls,              nequeas, 

3. 

queat, 

nequit,                  nequeat, 

1.         quimus, 

queamus, 

nequimus,            nequeamus, 

2. 

queatis, 

nequitis,               nequeatis, 

&         queunt. 

queant. 

nequeunt.             nequeant. 

IMPERF*  1. 

nequibam,            nequirem, 

2.  etc. 

nequlbas,  etc.       nequires,e<c. 

PERF.  1.        quivi, 

quive'rim, 

nequii,                  nequiv6rim, 

2.  etc.  quivisti,  etc. 

quivgris,  etc. 

nequisti,  etc.         nequiv6ris, 

etc. 

PLUPERF.      qulvgram,  etc. 

quivissem,  etc. 

nequlvgram,  etc.  nequivissem, 

FUT.  PERF.    quivgro,  etc. 

nequivgro,  etc.                 [etc. 

INF.  PRES.     quire, 

nequire, 

PERF.    quivisse. 

nequivisse. 

PART.  PRES.  quiens,  queuntis. 

nequiens,  nequeuntis. 

SUP.  ACC.       qultum. 

nequltum. 

Note.— Only  the  present  ind.  and  subj.  are  at  all  frequent.  Passive  forms 
are  found  in  old  writers  in  connection  with  a  passive  infinitive :  as,  nequl- 
tur  subigi. 

4.  Fan,  to  speak,  has  these  forms:  Indie.  Pres.  fatur,  he  (she)  speaks; 
Fut.  fabor,  fabitnr ;  Perf.  fatns  est ;  Pluperf.  fatns  eram,  fatus  erat ;  Im- 
perative, Sre;  Infinitive,  fari;  Participles,  fantis,  etc.  (the  nominative 
wanting,  except  in  the  phrase  fans  atque  infans  in  Plautus),  fatus,  fandus ; 
Gerund,  fandi,  fando ;  Supine,  fatu.    In  compounds  we  have  also  -famur, 
-fanuni ;  -fabar,  -fabere,  -fabYmur,  -farer,  and  in  the  imperative  praefato, 
praefamino. 

5.  Coepi  (co-  and  the  obsolete  apio,  Sansk.  root,  ap,  to  get,  acquire),  I 
have  begun,  has  the  tenses  derived  from  the  Perfect  Stem,  coepi,  coeperam, 
coepero,  coeperim,  coepissem,  coepisse,  and  from  the  Supine  Stem,  coep- 
turus,  coepturus  esse,  and  coeptus.    In  connection  with  a  passive  infini- 


DEFECTIVE   VERBS.— PRJETEEITIVES.  121 

live  coeptus  sum,  coeptus  eram,  are  used  more  often  than  coepi,  coepe- 
ram:  as,  comitia  haberi  coepta  sunt.   (CiC.) 

Note. — A  few  forms  from  the  Present  Stem  (as  coepio)  are  sometimes 
found  in  old  writers. 

6.  Verbs  which  have  no  forms  from  the  Present  Stem  in  use 
are  called  Prseteritive.    In  these  the  English  idiom  generally 
translates  the  Perfect  by  the  Present,  the  Pluperfect  by  the 
Imperfect,  the  Future  Perfect  by  the  Future :  as,  memini,  / 
remember;  memineram,  I  remembered;  meminero,  /  shall 
remember.   Strictly  speaking,  however,  there  is  the  proper  force 
of  the  tenses  in  these  forms  ;  for  memini  is  the  perfect  of  an 
obsolete  verb  meno  (mano),  connected  with  the  Sansk.  man, 
and  means  something  like  I  have  minded,  I  have  fixed  it  in  mind, 
and  thus,  I  now  remember;  odi  is  from  the  obsolete  odio, 
odere,  and  means  I  have  repelled,  thrust  from  me  with  loathing, 
then  hate;  novi  is  the  perfect  of  nosco,  and  means  I  have  be- 
come acquainted,  I  have  come  to  know,  i.  e.,  J  know,  I  am 
acquainted  with.    Memini,  odi,  and  novi  all  have  the  Ind. 
Perf.,  Pluperf.,  and  Fut.  Perf.,  the  Subj.  Perf.  and  Pluperf., 
and  the  Inf.  Perf.,  regularly.     Memini  has  also  the  Impera- 
tive, 2d  Sing,  memento,  2d  Plur.  mementote ;  odi  has  the 
Inf.  Fut.,  osurus  esse,  and  Fut.  Participle,  osurus ;  osus 
sum  is  a  rare  form  of  odi ;  and  the  Perf.  Participles  exosus 
and  perosus  are  found.    Novi  has  the  Perf.  Part,  notus,  only 
as  an  adjective. 

7.  Ovare,  to  triumph,  to  rejoice,  has  the  third  persons  singular  ovat, 
ovet,  ovaret,  the  participles  ovans,  ovatus  (Persius),  and  the  gerund 
ovandi. 

8.  Quaeso  and  quaesumus,  prythee,  are  old  colloquial  forms. 

9.  Salve,  hail !  has  the  Imperative  salve,  salvito,  salvete,  Future  sal- 
vebis,  Inf.  salvere.    Plautus  uses  once  the  Pres.  Ind.  salveo,  playing  on 
the  original  meaning  of  the  word,  to  be  in  good  health. 

10.  Ave  (or  have),  hail!  has  the  Imperative  ave,  aveto,  avete,  and  the 
Inf.  avere. 

11.  Vale,  farewell !  has  Imperative  vale,  valeto,  valete,  Ind.  Fut.  vale- 
bis,  Inf.  valere. 

12.  Age,  agYte,  come!  come  on!  is  sometimes  called  a  defective  verb, 
used  only  in  the  imperative.    It  is  properly  considered,  however,  as  the 
imperative  of  ago,  with  a  special  meaning. 

13.  Apage,  away  !  be  off !  is  a  Greek  imperative. 

11 


122 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


14.  The  imperative  cedo,  pray  tell  me,  give  me,  has  also  the  plural 
cedite,  cette. 


87.     IMPERSONAL    VERBS. 

1.  Impersonal  verbs  are  conjugated  in  the  third  persons  singular  of  the 
finite  verb  and  in  the  infinitive. 

2.  Active  impersonate  have  no  passive  voice.    The  principal  of  these 
are  of  the  second  conjugation  : 


oportet,  taedet,  nuseret, 
piget,  pudet,  paenitet, 
decet,  dedecet, 
libet,  licet,  liquet, 
attinet,  pertmet, 


it  behoves,  disgusts,  moves  pity. 

it  irks,  shames,  repents. 

it  beseems,  misbeseems. 

it  pleases,  is  lawful,  is  clear. 

it  relates,  belongs. 


TABLE  OF  IMPERSONAL  VERBS  (Second  Conjugation). 


1.  oport 

2.  taed 

3.  miser 

INDIC. 

SUBJ. 

INFIN. 

me,  te,  eum,    . 

4.  pig 

-et 

-eat 

-ere    .    .  Pres. 

T1AQ     T7AQ      PAfi 

5.  pud 

-ebat 

-eret 

.  Imperf. 

UU0f  VUBj   CU0)       • 

6.  paenit 

-Shit 

....  Fut. 

7.  dec             -Sit 

-uerit 

-uisse     .  Perf.' 

ft.   dpden 

"UBT&t 

-uisset 

.  Pluperf. 

-**..{£?• 

-uerit  . 

....  Fut.  Perf. 

f  11.  attin 
ad  me,  etc.  .    .   \  _rt 
(  12.  pertin 

The  following  perfects  are  also  used :  2,  pertaesum  est ;  3,  miseritum 
est ;  4,  pigitum  est ;  5,  pudttum  est ;  9,  libitum  est ;  10,  licitum  est. 

Miserescit  is  also  found ;  sometimes  mYseretur. 

The  gerundives  pYgendus,  pudendus,  paenttendus,  and  the  participles 
mtserYtus,  pertaesus,  attYnens,  perttnens  are  in  use.  Faenitens,  decens, 
libens,  licitus  are  used  as  adjectives. 

The  Persons  are  expressed  by  the  Case :  as, 


SING,    oportet  me  ire, 
oportet  te  ire, 
oportet  eum  ire, 

PLUR.  oportet  nos  ire, 
oportet  vos  ire, 
oportet  eos  ire, 


it  behoves  me 
you 
him 


them 


to  go—  ' 


you 
he 
we 
ye 
they  J 


ought 
to  go. 


IMPERSONAL    VERBS. 


123 


SING,    licet  mihi  ire, 
licet  tibi  ire, 
licet  ei  ire, 

PLUE.  licet  nobis  ire, 
licet  vobis  ire, 
licet  iis  ire, 

and  so  in  the  other  tenses. 


it  is  allowed  me 
« 


you 
him 


you 
them 


to  go  — 


I 

you 

he 

we 

ye 

they  j 


•  may  go: 


3.  Some  Personal  verbs  are  used  impersonally  with  special  meaning  : 


accidit,      it  happens  (ill),  - 

delectat, 

it  charms,     ~\ 

conducit,    it  profits, 

juvat, 

it  delights,     1  me,  te, 

contingit,  it  befalls  (well), 

mihi, 

fallit, 

it  eludes,       \   eum,  etc. 

evenit,       it  turns  out, 

tibi. 

fSgit, 

it  escapes,     J 

convenit,  it  suits, 

ei. 

interest, 

it  concerns,  |  mea,  tua, 

expedit,     it  is  expedient, 

nobis, 

refert, 

it  imports,    }    ejus,  etc. 

placet,       it  pleases, 

vobis. 

est, 

it  is  a  fact. 

restat,        it  remains, 

iis,  etc. 

fit, 

it  comes  to  pass. 

succurrit,  it  occurs, 

constat, 

it  is  acknowledged. 

vacat,         there  is  leisure,  > 

praestat, 

it  is  best. 

So  usu  venit,  in  mentem  venit,  etc. 

4.  Some  Impersonals  express  changes  of  season  and  weather ;  such  are 

fulgurat,  it  lightens.       ningit,  it  snows.  lucescit,  it  dawns. 

tonat,  it  thunders.  pluit,  it  rains.  illucescit,  it  gets  light. 

grandinat,  it  hails.         rorat,  there  falls  dew.      vesperascit,  it  gets  late. 

5.  Intransitive  verbs  may  be  used  impersonally  in  the  passive  voice : 
as,  luditur,  from  ludo,  I  play : 


IND. 

SUBJ. 

INFIN. 

PRESENT 

luditur, 

ludatur, 

ludi, 

IMPEEF. 

ludebatur, 

luderetur, 

FUTUEE 

ludetur, 

lusum  iri, 

PEEFECT 

lusum  est, 

lusum  sit, 

lusum  esse, 

PLUPEEF. 

lusum  erat, 

lusum  esset. 

lusum  fuisse. 

FUT.  PEEF. 

lusum  erit. 

The  persons  may  be  expressed  by  an  ablative  case  with  the  preposition 
a  or  ab  following  the  verb : 

PRESENT  INDICATIVE. 
SING,   luditur  a  me,     there  is  playing  by  me     =  I  play, 

luditur  ate,          "  "  thee   =  thou  playest, 

luditur  abeo,        "  "  him  =  he  plays, 


124  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

PRESENT    INDICATIVE. 

PLTJE.  luditur  a  nobis,  there  is  playing  by  us     =  we  play, 
luditur  a  vobis,    "  you  =  ye  play, 

luditur  ab  iis,       "  "  them  =  they  play  ; 

and  so  in  the  other  tenses. 

The  case  is  generally  understood,  and  the  verb  is  rendered  usually  as 
expressing  the  first  or  third  person  plural :  as,  luditur,  we  play  or  they  play; 
sometimes,  one  plays:  as  the  French,  on  joue. 

6.  The  neuter  gerundive  is  similarly  used  to  express  duty  or  necessity, 
with  a  dative  or  ablative  of  the  person : 

PRESENT   INDICATIVE. 

SING,    ludendum  est  mini,  there  must  be  playing  by  me     =  / 

ludendum  est  tibi,  "  thee  =  thou 

ludendum  est  ei,  "  him  =  he 

PLUR.  ludendum  est  nobis,  "  us     =  we 

ludendum  est  vobis,  "  you   =  ye 

ludendum  est  iis,  "  them  =  they 
and  so  in  the  other  tenses. 

In  this  construction  the  case  often  occurs ;  but  here,  too,  it  may  be  absent, 
and  we,  they,  or  one  supplied,  as  in  the  former  instance.  So  French,  on 
doitjouer. 

88.  DERIVATIVE  VERBS. 

1.  Inceptive  (or  Inchoative)  Verbs  denote  'the  beginning 
of  an  action  or  state.     They  are  all  of  the  third  conjugation. 
Those  derived  from  verbs  add  sco  or  isco  to  the  Present  stem  : 
as,  labasco,  I  begin  to  totter,  from  labare ;  calesco,  I  grow 
warm,  from  calere ;  tremisco,  J  begin  to  tremble,  from  treme- 
re  ;  obdormisco,  I  get  sleepy,  from  dormire.    Those  derived 
from  nouns  or  adjectives  add  esco,  more  rarely  asco,  to  the 
clipt  stem  :  as,  duresco,  become  hard,  from  durus ;  juvenesco, 
grow  young,  from  juvenis ;  puerasco,  become  a  boy,  from  puer. 

2.  Frequentative  or  Intensive  Verbs  express  repeated  or 
intense  action.     They  are  of  the  first  conjugation ;  and  are 
formed  either  by  adding  -ito  or  -itor  to  the  clipt  stem ;  as, 
rogito,  ask  often,  from  rogo;  mmitor,  threaten  much,  from 
minor ;  or  to  the  Supine  stem :  as,  lusito,  play  often,  from 
ludo,  lusum ;  or  by  adding  o  to  supine  stems  in  t  or  s :  as, 
curso,  run  often,  from  curro,  cursum ;  dicto,  keep  saying,  from 
dico,  dictum. 


THE  INFLECTIONS  OF  VERBS.  125 

a.  Frequentatives  may  be  formed  from  frequentatives :  as, 
cantito,  cursito,  dictito. 

3.  There  are  a  few  Intensives  in  esso  and  isso,  denoting 
eager  action,  as  capesso,  catch  eagerly,  take  in  hand ;  facesso, 
make  haste  to  do;  petisso,  seek  eagerly.     They  are  of  the  third 
conjugation,  but  with  perfect  and  supine  of  the  fourth.     Some- 
times such  derivatives  differ  little  in  meaning  from  the  primi- 
tive verb. 

4.  Desiderative  verbs  denote  desire  after  a  thing,  and  are 
formed  by  adding  iirio  to  the  Supine  stem  :  as,  esurio,  desire 
to  eat,  from  edo,  esum ;  cenatiirio,  wish  to  dine,  from  ceno, 
cenatum.     They  are  of  the  fourth  conjugation.     Such  verbs 
are  sometimes  coined  for  rhetorical  or  comic  effect,  as  sulla- 
tiirit,  he  wants  to  be  a  Sulla. 

5.  Diminutive  verbs  denote  a  diminution  or  pettiness  of 
the  action.     They  are  of  the  first  conjugation,  and  are  formed 
by  adding  illo  to  the  Present  stem :  as,  cantillo,  sing  low, 
from  canto ;  conscribillo,  scribble,  from  conscribo ;  sor- 
billo,  to  sip,  from  sorbeo. 

6.  A  few  verbs  form  what  are  at  once  diminutives  and  frequentatives, 
with  the  suffix  too:  as,  fodYco,  keep  wedging,  from,  fodio,  dig;  velltco, 
keep  plucking,  from  vello,  putt.    So  misstculo,  keep  sending,  from  mitto, 
missum.    These  are  all  of  the  first  conjugation. 

7.  Imitative  verbs  add  isso  to  the  clipt  stem  of  nouns  or  adjectives :  as, 
attfcisso,  to  imitate  the  Attics;  graecisso,  to  adopt  a  Grecian  manner; 
patrisso,  to  take  after  one's  father.    They  are  of  the  first  conjugation. 
Compare  Demosthenes's  verb,  Philippize. 


THE  INFLECTIONS  OF  VERBS. 
89.  INFLECTIONS  OF  PERSON,  NUMBER,  AND  VOICE. 

1.  The  personal  terminations  of  verbs  were  originally 
personal  pronouns ;  they  have  become  modified  in  their  form 
for  smoothness  of  sound  or  from  gradual  changes  in  utterance. 

2.  The  terminations  in  the  different  conjugations  in  the  classical  period 
will  be  seen  by  observation  of  the  paradigms.    The  supposed  primitive 
forms  of  the  present  indicative  lego  are  thus  given  by  G.  Curtius,  together 
with  the  supposed  primitive  forms  of  the  Greek  Afyw  and  the  actual  forms 
of  the  Sanskrit  present  bharami,  I  bear: 

11* 


126  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

Classical  Latin.  Primitive  Latin.  Primitive  Greek.  Sanskrit 

SING.   1.  lego,  lego-m  (i),  Atyo-///,  bhara-mi, 

2.  legi-s,  lege-s  (i),  \eyc-oi,  bhara-si, 

3.  legi-t,                  lege-t  (i),                  \eyt-n,  bhara-ti, 
PLTJR.  1.  legi-mus,             lego-mas,                  \eyo-nx,  bhara-mas, 

2.  legi-tis,  lege-tes,  Xeye-rt,  bhara-tha, 

3.  legu-nt.  lego-nt  (i).  Aeyo-m.  bhara-nti. 

3.  The  -m  in  the  First  Person  singular  and  plural  is  the  same  as  is  seen 
in  the  oblique  cases  of  the  pronoun  me. 

This  -m  is  dropped  in  the  singular  of  the  present  indicative  of  all  verbs 
(as  reg-o) ;  (except  two;  viz.,  sum  (for  es-om),  I  am,  and  inqua-m,  quoth 
I;)  also  in  the  future  perfect  of  all  verbs:  as,  amavero  ;  and  in  the  future 
indicative  of  all  verbs  with  stems  ending  in  -a  or  -e,  and  of  some  with 
stems  ending  in  -i ;  amabo,  monebo,  Tbo. 

In  a-  verbs  the  final  a  has  blended  with  the  suffix,  and  both  are  now 
represented  simply  by  -o.  Other  vowel  verbs  retain  their  characteristic 
vowel :  as,  trib-u-o,  mon-e-o,  aud-i-o,  cap-i-o.  But  three  i-  verbs  change 
i  to  e;  viz.,  eo  (stem  i-),  queo  (stem  qui-),  and  its  compound  nequeo.  In- 
quam  has  apparently  a  stem  in  a,  which  except  in  the  first  singular  present 
passes  into  T. 

The  perfect  indicative  always  ends  in  T.  The  proper  personal  suffix 
(m)  has  dropped  off  altogether.  It  is  probable  that  this  final  T  is  part  of 
the  stem ;  but  in  practice  it  is  more  convenient  to  regard  it  as  the  personal 
termination. 

In  the  Passive  Voice  the  only  change  from  the  active  is  the  addition  of 
r,  if  the  m  has  dropped  away,  or  the  substitution  of  it  for  m  if  the  m  has 
been  retained  in  the  active :  as,  active,  amo,  amabo  ;  passive,  amor,  amabor; 
but  active,  amabam,  amem ;  passive,  amabar,  amer. 

This  r  is  generally  considered  to  be  a  substitute  for  s,  the  proper  passive 
inflection  being,  as  is  supposed,  the  reflexive  pronoun  se. 

(A  passive  formed  by  a  reflexive  pronoun  is  seen  in  German,  Das  ver- 
steht  sick  von  selbst,  "  that  is  understood  of  itself ;"  French,  Le  corps  se  trouva, 
"  the  body  was  found ; "  Italian,  Si  loda  Vuomo  modesto,  "  the  modest  man 
is  praised ; "  Spanish,  Las  aguas  se  secaron,  "  the  waters  were  dried  up." — 
KEY.) 

Plural.  The  final  -us  is  the  part  of  the  suffix  which  distinguishes  the 
plural  number.  Its  origin  is  uncertain.  Some  think  it  arose  from  the  pro- 
noun of  the  second  person,  so  that  we  (-mus)  was  expressed  by  /  +  thou. 

In  the  present  indicatives  of  three  verbs,  viz.,  sumus,  we  are,  volumus, 
and  their  compounds,  and  the  old  form  quaesumus  (stem  quaes-),  we  pray, 
we  have  before  m  the  older  vowel  u.  da-mus  retains  the  radical  a. 

In  the  passive  the  final  a  is  changed  to  r ;  thus,  amamus,  amamur. 

4.  The  consonant  of  the  suffix  of  the  Second  Person  is  8  in  the  singular 


THE  PERSONAL   SUFFIXES  OF  VERBS.  127 

(changed  before  another  vowel  to  r  in  the  passive),  and  t  in  the  plural. 
The  perfect  indicative  has  t  in  the  singular  also.  The  personal  pronoun 
of  the  second  person  singular  in  Latin  (tu)  and  the  Doric  dialect  of  Greek 
(TV)  shows  us  this  t ;  in  the  Attic  dialect  of  Greek  it  has  s  (utf). 

Singular.  In  the  present  tense  of  fero,  /  bear  ;  void,  /  will ;  edo,  /  eat ; 
the  short  vowel  (i)  is  omitted  or  absorbed ;  hence  fers  (for  feris),  vis  (gen- 
erally taken  to  be  for  volis,  vilis,  vils),  and  Is  (for  edis,  eds) ;  es  (Is 
Plautus  and  Terence,  es  in  subsequent  poets)  is  also  the  second  person 
singular  present  indicative  of  sum,  /  am. 

All  a-,  e-,  and  i-  verbs  have  the  final  syllable  long;  viz.,  as,  es,  is.  Not 
so  the  verbs  with  t :  as,  capio,  capts. 

In  the  perfect  indicative  the  ending  of  the  second  person  singular  is  -isti, 
of  which  ending  -ti  is  the  proper  personal  suffix.  The  s  is  thought  by 
Schleicher  to  be  a  remnant  of  es  (Sansk.  as) ;  it  may  possibly  be  of  pronom- 
inal origin. 

In  the  passive,  -eris  (at  first  sight)  appears  to  be  formed  by  placing  the 
characteristic  passive  r  before  the  personal  suffix ;  the  true  theory,  however, 
is  probably  that  the  passive  suffix,  with  a  short  preceding  vowel,  being 
placed  after  the  personal  suffix  caused  the  s  between  two  vowels  to  change 
to  r,  necessitating  also  the  change  of  the  vowel  i  to  e  before  r.  Thus  re- 
geris  is  for  regi-s-is.  The  passive  suffix  itself  (i.  e.,  a  for  se)  was  allowed 
to  remain  s,  instead  of  being  changed  to  r,  as  usually,  in  order  to  avoid 
having  two  r's  close  together. 

-re  (as  amabare)  is  more  common  than  -ris  (as  amabaris)  in  Plautus, 
and,  except  in  the  present  tense,  in  Cicero  and  Vergil.  It  is  frequent  in 
Horace,  rare  in  Livy ;  and  is  usually  avoided  by  all  writers  where  the  form 
would  then  be  the  same  as  that  of  the  present  infinitive  active.  Hence  -ris 
is  retained  in  the  present  indicative  (with  rare  exceptions)  in  verbs  which 
have  an  active  voice ;  but  in  deponents  (where  there  is  no  risk  of  confusion, 
as  the  infinitive  ends  in  i)  -re  is  frequent  in  Plautus,  sometimes  found  in 
Cicero ;  -ris  is  usual  in  Vergil  and  Horace. 

Plural.  The  plural  ending  -tis  contains  the  personal  pronoun  of  the 
second  person,  t,  and  the  syllable  -is,  which  contains  either  the  pronoun 
of  the  second  person  in  its  other  form,  s,  (thou  +  thou  —  ye)  or  is  a  suffix 
of  plurality. 

In  the  present  tense  of  the  four  verbs  named  above,  the  i  before  the  suffix 
is  again  omitted :  fertis  for  feritis ;  voltis  or  vultis  for  volitis ;  estis  for 
editis,  ye  eat,  and  for  (originally)  esitis,  ye  are. 

In  the  perfect  s  is  simply  suffixed  to  the  singular  form. 

In  the  passive  voice  the  ending  -Tmrni  is  probably  a  masculine  plural 
participial  form.  The  Greek  present  passive  participle  is  of  similar  form ; 
viz.,  -omenos,  plur.  -omenoi.  Originally,  perhaps,  estis  was  used  with 
it,  as  it  is  used  with  a  past  participle  to  form  the  perfect  passive. 

6.  The  -t  is  the  suffix  of  the  Third  Person,  both  singular  and  plural  in 


128  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

all  tenses,  is  a  demonstrative  pronoun,  found  in  the  Greek  (so-called)  article, 
and  in  iste,  tot,  tails,  tantus,  etc. 

Singular.  In  the  present  tense  of  sum,  edo,  fero,  volo,  the  short  vowel 
before  -t  is  not  found ;  viz.,  est  (both  from  sum  and  from  edo),  fert,  volt, 
or  (later)  vult. 

a.  The  third  person  singular  active  of  a-,  e-,  and  i-  verbs  was  originally 
long,  as  may  be  inferred  from  the  passive  voice  (amat-ur,  xnonet-nr,  au- 
dit-ur),  and  is  actually  found  long  not  unfrequently  in  Plautus,  and  some- 
times in  Augustan  poets. 

b.  In  the  perfect  active  the  ending  is  the  same  as  in  the  present  (-it). 
Plautus  sometimes,  and  more  rarely  Augustan  poets,  have  this  -it  long. 

To  form  the  passive,  -ux  is  suffixed  to  the  active  form. 

Plural.  The  plural  suffix  is  -nt.  Instead  of  the  ending  -unt,  in  prae- 
Augustan  inscriptions,  in  Plautus,  and  Varro,  the  older  -ont  was  retained 
after  v  (or  n) :  as,  vivont,  confluent,  loquontur.  Of  this  suffix  the  t  is 
probably  the  same  as  in  the  singular ;  the  origin  of  the  n  (which  marks 
plurality)  is  uncertain. 

The  passive  is  formed  (as  in  the  singular)  by  suffixing  -ur  to  the  active 
form. 

The  perfect  suffix  is  the  same  as  the  present,  the  ending  being  er-unt,  of 
which  the  -er  is  the  same  as  the  -is  (before  t)  of  the  second  person.  The 
penult  (-er)  is  usually  long  (as,  rexerunt,  amavernnt),  but  the  dactylic 
poets  often,  beginning  with  Lucretius  (not  Ennius),  and  others  occasionally, 
shorten  it:  as,  dormierunt,  locaverunt,  subegerunt,  etc.  (Plaut.) ;  emerunt 
(Ter.) ;  dederunt,  fuerunt,  exiernnt,  etc.  (Lucr.). 

-ere  (for  erunt)  is  not  uncommon  in  Plautus  and  Terence,  rare  in  Cicero 
and  Caesar,  but  frequent  in  dactylic  poets  and  Livy. 

In  the  future  perfect  indicative  the  suffix-vowel  is  i  instead  of  u  (-erint 
for  -erunt) ;  probably  in  order  to  avoid  confusion  with  the  perfect. 


90.  INFLECTIONS  OF  MOOD. 

The  imperative  and  subjunctive  moods  are  distinguished 
from  the  indicative  by  certain  modifications. 


1.  Imperative  Mood. 

a.  Present. — The  imperative  present  appears  to  consist  of  shortened 
forms  of  the  indicative  present.  The  final  s  is  thrown  off,  and  -t  is  changed 
to  e  (or  rather,  as  the  form  probably  originally  ended  in  -es,  the  s  is  simply 
thrown  off).  Hence  the  active  regTs,  becomes  rege  ;  regTtTs,  regtte  ;  the 
passive  regerts,  regere  ;  the  second  person  plural  regtmtnT  is  the  same  as 
in  the  indicative.  But  from  verbs  with  vowel  stems  in  a-,  e-,  T-  (n 


INFLECTIONS  OF  MOOD.  129 

the  s  is  thrown  off  in  the  singular  without  further  change;  e.  g.,  ama, 
mone,  audi.  The  exceptional  form  noli  is  formed  as  if  from  the  second 
person  singular  of  the  subjunctive  present. 

6.  (For  a  merely  practical  rule,  we  may  say,  the  imperative  active  is  seen 
by  dropping  the  termination  re  of  the  present  infinitive.) 

In  verbs  which  have  short  penult,  and  vowel  stems  in  a,  e,  i,  and  also 
in  the  compounds  of  eo,  the  imperative  forms  in  Plautus  and  Terence  often 
shortened  the  final  vowel :  as,  commoda,  mone,  jube,  adi,  abT ;  especially 
in  colloquial  forms :  as,  manedum,  tacedum,  monesis,  vtdesis. 

c.  Future. — The  future  imperative  active  is  distinguished  by  a  suffix, 
originally  -od.  In  the  form  which  is  common  to  the  second  and  third  per- 
sons, i.  e.,  reg-it-o,  and  the  form  for  the  third  person  plural,  i.  e.,  regunto, 
the  -d  has  fallen  off,  as  in  the  ablative  case  of  nouns. 

The  suffix  appears  to  have  been  simply  added  to  the  present  indicative 
forms  of  the  third  person  singular  and  plural.  (The  use  of  this  form  for 
the  second  person  singular  was  perhaps  due  to  -t  being  a  characteristic  of 
the  second  personal  pronoun.)  The  plural  second  person  is  formed  by 
appending  -e  (for  «es,  later  -is)  as  the  sign  of  plurality  in  this  person  to  a 
modified  form  of  the  singular :  as,  reg-Yt-ot-e  (for  reg-tt-od-e). 

The  passive  forms  substitute  -r  for  the  final  -d :  as,  regtt-or  for  regtt- 

od ;  regunt-or  for  regunt-od. 

i 

In  Plautus,  Cato,  and  old  inscriptions,  a  form  in  -mino  is  (rarely)  found 
for  the  second  and  third  person  singular  of  the  imperative  of  deponents  :  as, 
profite-nuno,  praefa-mtno,  progredi-nuno,  fru-t-nuno.  One  instance  of 
a  passive  verb  denuntiamino  is  found.  This  old  form  is  of  the  same  origin 
as  the  second  person  plural  indicative  in  -mini. 

2.  Subjunctive  Mood. 

The  subjunctive  is  characterized  by  a  lengthened  vowel  im- 
mediately before  the  consonant  of  the  personal  suffix. 

Present.— This  vowel  is  a  in  the  present  tense  of  all  verbs,  except  verbs 
with  a-  stems,  in  which  it  is  e ;  i.  e.,  reg-a-mus,  regamur ;  moneamus, 
moneamur;  audiamus,  audiamur;  tribuamus,  tribuamur;  but  amemus, 
amenmr. 

Except  also  a  few  in  which  it  is  T ;  viz.,  sim,  sis,  etc.,  from  sum ;  velim, 
veils,  etc.,  from  volo ;  and  the  compounds  of  both ;  i.  e.,  possim,  absim, 
etc.,  nolim,  malim ;  so  also  edim,  duim,  and  their  compounds. 

Sum  and  its  compounds  had  an  older  form  siem,  sies,  from  which  sim, 
sis,  etc.,  are  contracted.  The  -es,  -et  is  perhaps  only  the  older  form  of  the 
ending  -ts,  tt.  But  more  probably  it  corresponds  to  the  long  final  syllable 
in  Gr.  elV,  Sansk.  sydm. 

I 


130  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

Imperfect  and  Pluperfect.— The  long  vowel  in  these  tenses  is  e  in  all 
verbs ;  e.  g.,  rexissemus,  amavissemus,  etc. 

a.  (For  a  practical  rule,  we  may  say,  the  imperfect  subjunctive  active  is 
seen  by  adding  m,  and  the  passive  by  adding  r,  to  the  present  infinitive 
active.) 

Perfect. — The  vowel  (assumed  to  have  been  originally  long)  is  I,  which, 
however,  probably  from  confusion  with  the  future  perfect,  is  in  dactylic 
poets  as  often  short  as  long. 

In  Plautus  and  Terence  there  appears  to  be  no  instance  incompatible 
with  the  rule  of  I  for  the  perf.  subj.,  t  for  the  fut.  perf.  indie.,  in  the  second 
person  singular  and  first  and  second  persons  plural. 

The  forms  for  the  subjunctive  have  been  thought  best  explicable  by 
assuming  the  proper  suffix  to  be  T  (seen  in  the  Greek  optative),  which  was 
contracted  with  a  preceding  a  to  e.  Thus  amas,  ama-T-s,  amis.  But  as  T 
suffixed  to  the  present  indicative  of  vowel  verbs  other  than  those  with  a 
stems  would  have  given  still  the  same  form  when  contracted,  an  a  (frequent 
in  Aryan  subjunctives)  was  substituted  in  all  such  cases.  The  consonant 
verbs  eventually  followed  this  analogy,  the  forms  in  i  being  either  sporad- 
ically used  or  (if  originally  usual)  only  sporadically  retained.  Sis  and 
velis,  etc.,  retain  the  T,  because  they  have  other  points  of  difference  from 
the  indicative. 

91.    TENSES  FORMED  FROM  THE  PRESENT  STEM. 

1.  The  characteristic  tense-endings,  both  in  the  forms  from 
the  present  and  those  from  the  perfect  stems,  were  probably 
originally  verbs — added  to  the  verb-stem  with  the  force  of 
auxiliaries — to  which  auxiliaries  the  terminations  of  number 
and  person  belong.     It  has  been  supposed  that  some  of  them 
were  derived  from  bhu  and  es,  meaning  to  be;  others  from  ya, 
a  form  of  i,  to  go. 

2.  Present. — The  present  indicative  is  formed  simply  by  suffixing  the 
inflections  of  number  and  person.    The  present  subjunctive  has  a  mood 
inflection  in  addition. 

3.  Future.— The  future  indicative  is  in  consonant,  in  i-  verbs,  and  in  u- 
verbs  a  modified  form  of  the  present  subjunctive.     The  first  person  singular 
is  the  same :  the  other  persons  have  long  e  where  the  present  subjunctive 
has  a;  i.  e.,  fut.  reges,  regemus,  etc.;  pres.  subj.  regas,  regamus,  etc. 
In  the  third  person  sing.  act.  the  final  syllable  was  short  in  the  ordinary 
language. 

This  e  perhaps  arises  from  suffixing  I  (meaning  to  go)  to  the  present 
subjunctive  of  these  verbs;  i.  e.,  reg-a-mus,  reg-a-I-mus,  regemus;  just 
as  amemus,  pres.  subj.  was  formed.  But  this  formation  would  not  do  for 


TENSES  FROM  THE  PRESENT  STEM.  131 

a-  and  e-  verbs ;  because  in  a-  verbs  such  a  form  (e.  g.,  amenms)  is  already 
used  for  the  pres.  subj. ;  and  in  e-  verbs,  it  (g.  g.f  monemus)  would  be 
identical  with  the  present  indicative.  Accordingly 

In  a-  and  e-  verbs  there  is  a  different  mode  of  forming  the  future  indic- 
ative ;  viz.,  by  suffixing  ib-  to  the  present  stem,  with  the  final  vowel  of 
which  it  is  contracted ;  e.  g.,  ama-,  ama-ib-,  amab- ;  first  person  plural 
amab-imus ;  mon-e-,  mone-ib-,  moneb- ;  first  person  plural  monebimus. 

A  similar  future  (besides  the  ordinary  form  in  -am,  -es,  -et)  is  not  un- 
frequently  formed  from  T-  stems  in  early  writers  (Plautus,  Terence,  etc.) ; 
e.  g.,  aperibo,  adgredibor  (comp.  adgrediri  foradgredi),  larglbere,  oppe- 
ribor,  scibo,  etc.  But  of  these  forms  none  are  found  so  late  as  the  first 
century  B.  c.,  except  Ibo,  quibo,  nequlbo,  which  are  the  only  forms  in  use 
at  any  time  in  those  three  verbs.  LenTbo  is  also  found  in  Propertius. 

The  verb  do  has  a  short  penultimate  dabo. 

The  verb  sum  and  compounds  may  seem  to  have  merely  a  different  form 
of  the  present  for  the  future;  viz.,  er-o  (for  esom),  first  person  plural  er- 
imus  (compare  pres.  sumus  for  es-um-us).  Most  philologists,  however, 
consider  ero,  etc.,  to  be  for  esio,  the  i  being  similar  to  that  of  the  present 
subj. 

4.  Imperfect. — The  imperfect  indicative  has  in  all  stems  a  long  a  pre- 
ceding the  personal  inflections.    Thus  es-  with  a  suffixed  becomes  esa-, 
which  with  the  personal  m  and  the  usual  change  of  s  to  r  becomes  era-m, 
I  was.    In  all  stems  except  es-,  b  is  prefixed  to  this  long  a.    Moreover,  in 
all  stems  but  da-  the  vowel  preceding  ba  is  long. 

The  long  a,  which  is  always  found  (though  shortened  by  final  m  and  t), 
serves  to  distinguish  the  imperfect  from  the  future  where  the  forms  are 
otherwise  similar;  e.  g.,  amabamus,  amabimus ;  monebamus,  monebi- 
mus ;  Tbamus,  Tbimus  ;  dabamus,  dabimus ;  eramus,  erimus.  It  is  ap- 
parently a  sign  of  past  time,  and  as  such  is  found  in  the  pluperfect  also. 

In  consonant  stems  the  ending  is  -eba-,  and  this  is  usually  found  also  in 
verbs  with  i  stems ;  e,  g.,  reg-eba-mus,  audi-eba-mus.  But  this  long  e  is 
not  found  in  eo,  queo,  and  their  compounds,  and  is  not  unfrequently  absent 
in  the  earlier  language  (Plautus,  Ter.,  Varr.,  etc.) ;  e.  g.,  sclbam,  nesclbam, 
aibam,  etc.,  gestibat,  grundlbat,  insanlbat,  molllbat,  praesagTbat,  ser- 
vibas,  stabillbat,  venlbat.  So  also,  apparently  for  metrical  reasons,  in 
the  dactylic  poets ;  e.  g.,  audlbant,  lenibat,  saevlbat,  redimlbat,  mollbar, 
feribant,  etc. 

5.  Imperfect  Subjunctive.— This  tense  had  the  suffix  -er  (for  es),  which 
with  the  modal  suffix  e  made  -ere.    The  first  vowel  coalesced  with  a  pre- 
ceding a,  e,  or  T ;  e.  g.,  reg-er-emus,  tribu-er-emus,  am-ar-emus  (for  ama- 
er-emus),  mon-er-emus,  aud-ir-emus,  and  caused  the  omission  of  a  pre- 
ceding i;  e.  #.,capi-,  caperem. 

In  edo,  volo,  fero,  and  their  compounds,  the  vowel  e  was  dropped  out; 
e.  g.,  first  person  plural  es-sem-us  (for  ed-es-emus) ;  vel-lem-us  (for  vol- 


132  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

er-em-us ' ;  fer-rem-us  (for  fer-er-em-us).    Do  has  daremus.    Sam  (as  well 
as  edo)  has  essemus. 

essem  (from  sum)  may  be  formed  from  the  imperfect  indicative  with  the 
subjunctival  suffix  I.  Thus  esa-i-m  becomes  ese-m,  the  first  syllable  being 
lengthened  by  a  double  s  as  a  compensatory  result  of  the  contraction.  The 
imperfect  of  sum  in  a  somewhat  different  form  appears  to  have  been  used 
to  form  the  imperfect  of  regular  verbs,  e.  g.,  reg-  with  the  imperfect  indic- 
ative of  sum,  isreg-eram:  hence  reg-era-i-m,  regerem. 

6.  The  Present  Infinitive  Active  has  the  suffix  -ere,  for  -ese  (s  between 
two  vowels  changed  to  r),  in  which  the  first  e  coalesces  with  a  preceding 
a,  e,  or  I;  e.  g.,  reg-ere,  tribu-ere  ;  am-are,  mon-ere,  aud-ire.    Capere  is 
formed  analogously  to  caperem  (5). 

In  sum,  edo,  volo,  fero,  and  their  compounds,  the  first  vowel  e  was 
dropped  out,  as  in  the  imperfect  subjunctive.  Hence  the  infinitives  are 
esse  (for  esese  and  for  edese),  velle  (for  volere),  ferre  (for  ferere). 

a.  The  infinitive  is  generally  considered  to  be  the  dative  or  locative 
case  of  a  verbal  noun  with  stem  ending  in  s-  or  si- ;  e.  g.,  dicer-e  for  old 
daikas-ai,  viver-e  analogous  to  the  Sanskrit  jivas-ai.  The  final  e  (=ai) 
would  be  originally  long. 

7.  The  Present  Infinitive  Passive  has  the  suffix  i  appended  to  the  stem, 
in  verbs  whose  stem  ends  in  a  consonant,  or  in  i  or  in  u  :  as,  reg-T,  tribu-T, 
cap-T.    In  other  vowel  verbs  T  takes  the  place  of  the  final  e  of  the  active 
infinitive  :  as,  aud-Ir-I,  mon-er-T,  am-ar-T. 

a.  A  further  suffix  -er  is  found  appended  to  the  i,  frequently  in  the 
older  and  occasionally  in  later  poets :  as,  amarier,  vestlrier. 

8.  The  suffix  of  the  PRESENT  PARTICIPLE  is  -enti,  nom.  sing,  -ens :  as, 
reg-ens,  tribu-ens,  audi-ens.     In  eo  and  its  compounds  an  older  form  of 
the  suffix,  viz.,  -unti,  is  retained ;  the  nom.  sing,  is,  however,  usually  iens. 
In  -a  and  -e  verbs  the  suffix  coalesces  with  the  final  stem  vowel :  as,  amans 
(for  ama-ens),  monens  (for  mone-ens). 

9.  The  suffix  -endo  forms,  as  a  noun,  the  GERUND,  as  an  adjective,  the 
GERUNDIVE  :  as,  regendum,  tribuendum,  audiendum ;  amandum,  mo- 
nendum. 

An  older  form  in  -undo  (probably  for  an  earlier  -ondo)  is  common  in 
some  writers.  Eo  and  its  compounds  always  have  this  form  :  as,  eundum, 
adeundus. 

92.    TENSES  FORMED  FROM  THE  PERFECT  STEM. 

1.  The  suffixes  for  the  tenses  formed  from  the  perfect  stem,  i.  e.,  for  the 
perfect,  future  perfect,  and  pluperfect  in  the  indicative,  and  perfect  and 
pluperfect  in  the  subjunctive,  are  the  same  in  all  verbs ;  viz.,  future  perfect, 
-er- ;  perf.  subj.,  -er-T;  pluperf.  ind.,  -er-a ;  pluperf.  subj.,  -iss-e.    The 
perfect  infinitive  ends  in  isse. 

2.  The  great  resemblance  of  these  suffixes  to  the  parts  of  the  verb  sum, 


FORMS  FROM  THE  PERFECT  AND  SUPINE  STEMS.    133 

which  are  used  to  form  the  same  tenses  in  the  passive  voice,  suggests  (and 
the  suggestion  has  been  generally  adopted)  that  they  are  identical  in 
origin. 

This  theory  would  give  a  complete  explanation  of  the  pluperfect  and  the 
future  perfect  indicative,  with  the  exception  that  the  third  person  plural 
of  the  latter  has  erint  instead  of  erunt,  perhaps  in  order  to  avoid  confusion 
with  the  third  person  plural  perfect  indicative. 

The  perfect  subjunctive  would  be  explained  by  assuming  as  the  suffix  an 
older  form  of  sim ;  viz.,  -esim,  or  with  the  usual  change  of  s  to  r,  -erim. 

In  the  perfect  infinitive  and  pluperfect  subjunctive,  audivissem,  audi- 
visse  would  stand  for  aud-TvT-essem,  audivT-esse. 

In  the  perfect  indicative  the  second  person  singular,  e.  g.,  audivisti 
would  stand  for  aud-lvl-esti  (the  personal  suffix  -ti  being  lost  in  the  sim- 
ple verb,  es,  thou  art] ;  second  person  plural,  e.  g.,  audivistis,  for  aud-TvT- 
estis ;  third  person  plural,  e.  g.,  audiverunt,  for  aud-ivl-esunt.  The  third 
personal  singular  may  have  the  simple  personal  suffixes,  or  may  possibly 
have  been  reduced  from  a  fuller  form  ;  e.  g.,  audivi-est,  audivist,  audivit. 
The  -It  is  sometimes  found  long.  The  first  person  singular,  e.  g.,  audivi, 
may  then  be  for  audivl-esum,  audivism,  audivim.  And  the  first  person 
plural  may  have  had  a  similar  pedigree. 

It  must,  however,  be  observed  that  the  resemblance  to  the  parts  of  the 
stem  es,  on  which  this  theory  rests,  is  in  some  degree  deceptive,  for  it  con- 
sists largely  in  personal  and  modal  suffixes,  which  even  on  another  hy- 
pothesis might  be  expected  to  be  the  same. 

3.  The  perfect  stem  when  formed  by  a  suffixed  v,  is  frequently  modified 
by  the  omission  of  the  v  in  all  tenses  and  persons  and  both  numbers,  ex- 
cept in  the  first  person  singular  and  plural,  and  third  person  singular  of 
the  perfect  indicative.  The  vowels  thus  brought  together  are  contracted, 
excepting  -ie  and  sometimes  -ii.  (See  83.) 

93.    PARTICIPLES  AND  COMPOUND  TENSES  FORMED 
FROM  THE  SUPINE  STEM. 

From  the  so-called  supine  stem  are  formed  the  future  participle  active 
by  suffixing  -uro-,  sing.  nom.  -urus  (m.),  -ura  (f.),  -urum  (n.) ;  and  the 
past  participle  passive,  by  suffixing  the  ordinary  case-endings  of  the  first 
and  second  declension  ;  e.  g.,  sing.  nom.  -us  (m.),  -a  (f.),  -um  (n.). 

These  participles,  in  the  appropriate  gender  and  number,  are  used  in  the 
nominative  case  with  the  finite  tenses  of  the  verb  sum,  and  in  the  accusa- 
tive as  well  as  the  nominative  with  the  infinitive  of  the  same  verb  to  sup- 
ply the  place  of  certain  tenses  for  which  there  is  no  special  form.  The 
future  participle  thus  supplies  additional  future  tenses  in  the  active  voice, 
especially  in  the  subjunctive ;  the  past  participle  supplies  the  perfect  tenses 
of  the  passive  voice,  whether  the  passive  voice  have  a  strictly  passive  mean- 
ing, or,  as  in  deponents,  an  active  or  reflexive  meaning. 
12 


134  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

VERB  STEMS. 
94.  THE  PRESENT  STEM. 

Verbs  may  be  divided  into  consonant  verbs  and  vowel 
verbs,  according  as  the  present  stem  ends  in  a  consonant  or 
a  vowel. 

I.  Consonant  Verbs. 

1.  Most  consonant  verbs  exhibit  in  the  present  stem  no  alteration  of  the 
regular  stem  of  the  verb :  as,  reg-,  reg-ere ;  caed-,  caed-ere. 
In  others  such  alteration  is  found  :  as, 

1 .  The  verb  stem  is  reduplicated  to  form  the  present  tense ;  thus,  from 
the  verb  stem  gen-,  we  have  the  present  gignere  for  gi-genere  (gen-ui, 
ggnltum) ;  from  sta-,  sistere  (stlti,  statum) ;  from  sa,  serere  for  sesere 
(sevi,  satum). 

2.  The  radical  vowel  is  lengthened ;  thus  from  the  stem  due-  (compare 
dux,  dticis)  ducere ;  from  dtc-  (compare  veridlcus)  dicere ;  from  ftd-  (com- 
pare fides)  fidere. 

3.  n  is  suffixed  to  the  stem  of  the  verb :  as,  tern-,  tem-n-ere ;  cer-,  cer- 
n-ere;  sit-,  st-n-ere. 

(In  early  Latin  are  found  such  forms  as  da-n-unt  for  dant,  solT-n-unt  for 
solent,  nequi-n-unt  for  nequeunt,  obi-n-unt  for  obeunt.) 

4.  A  nasal  is  inserted  before  the  final  stem  consonant:  as,  a.  Labial 
stems :  cub-,  cu-m-bere ;  rup-,  ru-m-pere ;  b.  Guttural  stems :  liqu-,  li-n- 
quere ;  frag-,  fra-n-gere ;  vYc-,  vi-n-cere.    In  some  verbs  the  nasal  is  re- 
tained in  the  perfect  and  dropped  in  the  supine  stem:  as,  fig-,  fi-n-gere, 
fi-n-xi,  fi-ctura.     In  some  the  nasal  is  constant  in  the  verb  stem  :  as,  root 
jug-  (compare  jug-um),ju-n-gere,  ju-n-xi,  ju-n-ctum;  c.  Dental  stems:  as, 
fid-,  fi-n-dere  ;  tud-,  tu-n-dere. 

5.  sc  or  isc  is  suffixed  to  verb  stems,  especially  to  vowel  stems  in  e,  and 
gives  often  the  special  meaning  of  beginning  or  becoming.    This  inchoative 
form  sometimes  exists  alone,  sometimes  is  used  besides  the  ordinary  stem, 
sometimes  is  found  in  a  compound,  but  not  in  the  simple  verb.    The  per- 
fect and  supine,  if  any,  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  ordinary  stem  (real  or 
assumed).    A  very  few  stems  carry  the  suffix  -sc  throughout  all  the  tenses. 
Thus  sc  is  suffixed  : 

a.  To  consonant  stems:  as,  al-  (alere),  ale-sc-ere;  pac-,  pac-isc-i;  die-, 
di-sc-ere  (for  dic-sc-ere). 

6.  To  vowel  stems:  as,  Tra-,  ira-sc-i;   na-,   na-sc-i;   no-,   no-sc-ere; 
ere-,  cre-sc-ere;  dorml-  (dormlre),  ob-dormi-sc-ere ;  set-,  sci-sc-ere. 

6.  The  guttural  is  omitted  in  some  stems  which  probably  ended  in  gn- 
(i.  e.,  g  with  a  slight  labial  action  after  it) :  as,  flugu-,  flu-ere ;  strugu-, 
stru-ere;  frugu-,  frui;  vigu-,  vlv-ere;  also  the  vowel  stem  conigu-, 
conivere. 


THE  PRESENT  STEM.  135 

Other  stems  vary  between  gu  and  g :  as,  stinguere,  stingere ;  tinguere, 
tingere ;  unguere,  ungere ;  ninguit,  ningit  (compare  nix,  niv-is),  and 
the  vowel  stems  urguere,  urgere. 

7.  s  is  changed  between  vowels  to  r :  as,  ges-,  gerere  (gessi,  gestum) ; 
ques-,  queri  (ques-tus);  quaes-,  quaerere  (compare  quaeso,  quaesivi,  etc.) ; 
us-,  urere  (ussi,  ustum). 

Also  the  vowel  stem  hausi-,  haurlre  (hausi,  nans-turn). 

8.  A  few  verbs  have  11  in  present  stem,  but  not  in  other  parts :  as,  col-, 
percellere  (per-cul-i,  per-cul-sum) ;  pol-,  pellere  (pe-pul-i,  pul-sum) ;  tol-, 
toilers  (tul-i);  vellere  retains  11  in  perfect  velli,  but  has  the  supine 
vul-sum. 

II.  Vowel  Verbs. 

1.  Verbs  with  stems  ending  in  a : 

Most  of  these  verbs  have  the  verb  stem  ending  in  a-,  and  preserve  it  in  all 
tenses :  as,  fla-,  flare  (flavi,  flatum) ;  fa-,  fari  (fatus) ;  in  which  a  is  radical. 

In  na-,  nare  (navi,  natum),  the  a  is  constant,  but  the  derivative  nato 
shows  that  a  is  radical.  In  stra-,  ster-n-ere  (stravi,  stratum) ;  tla-,  toll- 
ere  (tetuli,  la  turn  for  tlatum) ;  the  present  stem  is  consonantal. 

2.  Verbs  with  stems  ending  in  a- :  as, 

da-,  dare  (dedi,  datum),  but  das  has  a.  In  all  other  verbs  which  may  be 
considered  to  have  a  stem  ending  in  a-,  the  final  a-  combines  with  the  ini- 
tial vowel  of  the  suffixes  in  tenses  formed  from  the  present  stem,  so  as  to 
present  a ;  e.  g., 

Sta-,  stare  (steti,  statum,  but  sometimes  statum),  where  a  is  radical; 
crepa-,  crepare ;  cuba-,  cubare ;  do  ma-,  domare ;  frYca-,  frTcare ;  mtca-, 
mYcare;  eneca,  enecare,  but  neca-  usually  is  simple  verb;  -pltca-  and 
-plica-,  plicare  ;  seca-,  secare;  -sona-,  sonare  (also  sonere) ;  tona,  tonare  ; 
veta-,  vetare ;  all  of  which  have  perfects  in  -ui,  and  most  of  them  usually 
supines  in  -ttum.  Also  lava-,  lavare  (and  lavere) ;  juva-,  juvare ;  which 
vocalize  and  contract  the  radical  v  with  -ui  of  the  perfect ;  and  contract 
or  omit  it  in  the  supine. 

3.  Of  verbs  with  stems  ending  in  o,  the  only  traces  are 

no-,  which  has  the  inchoative  suffix  in  the  present  tense,  noscere  (novi, 
notum) ;  the  root  has  o,  comp.  nota  (noun),  notare,  cognttum,  etc. ;  and 
po-  (potum),  the  frequentative  pota-re  being  otherwise  alone  in  use. 

4.  Verbs  with  stems  ending  in  u. 

a.  Most  have  stems  in  u,  which,  however,  becomes  short  before  the  ini- 
tial vowel  of  the  suffixes:  as,  acu-,  acuere,  acuis,  acuisti,  acuas,  acuebam, 
acuerem,  etc. ;  the  supine  has  u.    Plu-,  pluere  (perf.  pluvi  and  plui)  is, 
apparently,  contracted  for  pluv-  or  plov-  (compare  pluvia).   And  the  same 
may  be  the  case  with  all :  compare  fluo,  fluv-ius. 

b.  ruo  has  rii-  in  supine  of  compounds,  but  ruta  (n.  pi.)  according  to 
Varro.    Pu-  is  found  only  in  adj.  putus  and  frequentative  putare. 


136  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

e.  A  few  verbs  have  u  vocal  in  the  supine,  but  consonantal  usually  in 
the  present  and  perfect:  as,  loqu-,  loqui  (locfitum) ;  sequ-,  sequi  (secu- 
tum) ;  solv-,  solvere  (solvi,  solutum) ;  volv-,  volvere  (volvi,  volutum). 

5.  Verbs  with  stems  ending  in  e : 

a.  Few  verbs  have  the  stem  ending  in  e,  and  these  are  monosyllables, 
where  e  is  radical :  as,  dele-  (compound),  delere ;  fle,  Here ;  ne-,  nere ;  -pie, 
-plere. 

All  these  have  the  perfect  and  supine  in  -evi,  -etum. 

Other  verbs  with  e  (-evi,  -etum)  have  consonantal  present  stems:  as, 
ere-,  ere  see  re ;  quie-,  quiescere. 

6.  In  most  verbs  with  stems  in  -e,  the  e  was  probably  short,  as  may  be 
inferred  from  the  perfect  being  in  -ui  (for  -eui),  and  supine  in  -ttum,  which 
in  some  verbs  was  reduced  to  -turn :  as,  mone-,  monere  (monui,  monitum), 
and  many  others;  cave-,  cavere  (cavi  for  cavui,  cavitum,  contracted  to 
cautum),  and  others.    Contraction  with  the  initial  vowel  of  suffixes  gives 
e  in  most  forms  of  the  present  stem;    e.  g.,  monere,  mones,  monemus, 
monebam,   monebo,   monerem,   monetur  (monet,   as  amat,  audtt,   the 
vowel  being  shortened  before  t  final). 

c.  Many  verbs  have  e  (probably  e)  in  the  present  stem,  but  drop  it 
entirely  and  show  consonantal  stems  in  other  parts  of  the  verb :  as,  morde, 
mordere  (momordi,  morsum ) ;  vtde-,  vTdere  (vidi,  visum) ;  sede-,  sedere 
(sedi,  sessum),  and  many  others. 

d.  Some  have  a  present  stem  in  -e,  besides  another  (older  or  poetic)  con- 
sonantal stem :  as,  fervere,  fervere  ;   strldere,  strldere ;  tueri,  in  com- 
pounds -tui ;  ciere,  in  compounds  -clre. 

6.   Verbs  with  stems  ending  in  i : 

a.  Some  verbs  with  radical  i,  and  many  derivatives,  have  I,  and  retain 
it  through  all  the  tenses:  as,  scT-,  sclre;  i-,  Ire;  cT,  -cire  (also  ciere); 
qni-,  quire.    In  these  the  i  is  radical.    So,  too,  and!-,  audlre ;  dorm!-, 
dormlre ;  and  many  other  derivatives.     In  all  these  the  perfect  is  in  -Tvi, 
and  in  the  derivative  verbs  and  scio,  the  supine  is  in  -Ttum.    But  ttum, 
cttum,  quotum. 

b.  Some  verbs  have  T  in  the  present  stem,  but  drop  it  and  show  a  conso- 
nantal stem  in  other  parts ;  as,  amid-,  amiclre  (amicui,  amictum). 

c.  Some  verbs  have  the  stem  ending  in  t,  which  fell  away  before  t  or  er ; 
and,  as  final  in  the  imperative,  was  changed  to  e.  The  i  is  generally  dropped 
in  the  supine  stem.    Thus  capY-,  capere  (cepi,   captum) ;    gradt-,  inf. 
gradl  (gressum).    Two  have  T  in  other  tenses  than  those  derived  from 
the  present :  cupY-,  oupere,  cupTvi,  cupitum  (in  Lucretius  also  cuplret) ; 
sapi,  sapere,  saplvi,  in  compound  reslpui  and  resiplvi. 

d.  A  few  verbs  have  consonant  stems  in  the  present,  but  T  stems  in  other 
parts :  as,  pet-,  petere,  petivi,  petltum ;  quaes-,  quaerere,  quaeslvi,  quae- 
sTtum ;  arcess-,  arcessere,  arcesslvi,  arcessltum. 


THE  PERFECT  AND  SUPINE  STEMS.  137 

95,    FORMATION  OF  THE  PERFECT  STEM. 

The  perfect  stem  is  formed  in  six  different  ways : 

1.  By  reduplication.    The  first  consonant  of  the  stem  is 
prefixed  with  a  short  vowel,  which  is  (1)  e  if  the  stem-vowel  is 
a  or  e,  and  (2)  is  the  same  as  the  stem- vowel  if  that  vowel  is  o, 
u,  or  i.     (3)  If  the  stem-vowel  is  a,  it  is  changed  to  e  before 
two  consonants,  to  i  before  one ;  (4)  ae  is  changed  to  I.    (5) 
Before  single  1,  e  and  o  become  u.     (6)  If  the  stem  begins  with 
sp,  so,  st,  the  second  consonant  is  reduplicated,  and  the  s 
prefixed  to  the  reduplication  syllable. 

Thus:  (1)  and  (3)  can-,  ce-cm-i;  pare-,  pe-perc-i;  (1)  pend-,  pe-pend-i; 
(2)  pose-,  po-posc-i;  tSd-  (present  tund-),  tu-tud-i;  dTc-  (present  disc- 
for  die-so-),  di-dic-i;  (4)  caed-,  ce-cld-i;  (5)  pol-  (present  pell-),  pe-pul-i; 

(6)  sponde-,  spo-pond-i ;  sta-  (present  sta-),  ste-ti. 

2.  By  lengthening  the  stem -vowel:    as,  rup-  (present 
rump-),  rup-i.    Short  a  is  changed  to  e  (except  in  scabere), 
as  ag-,  eg-i. 

3.  By  suffixing  s :  as,  carp-,  carp-s-i.    This  suffix  is  sup- 
posed to  be  the  same  as  that  of  the  First  Aorist  in  Greek.    In 
stems  in  m,  a  euphonic  p  is  generally  inserted  before  s,  as 
dem-,  demp-s-i.    In  premo  the  m  is  assimilated:  pres-si. 
The  gutturals  c,  g,  and  qu,  with  s  become  x;  as  die-,  di-x-i  ; 
c  and  g,  after  1  or  r,  are  dropped  before  s;  as,  mulce-, 
mul-s-i;   sparg-,  spar-s-i.     The  labial  b  becomes  p;   as, 
scrib-,  scrip-s-i.     The  dentals  t  and  d  fall  away  before  s,  or 
are  assimilated  to  it :  as,  fleet-,  flex-i  (x=  cs) ;  mitt,  mi-s-i ; 
ced-,  ces-s-i;  divid-,  divi-s-i;  vad-,  va-s-i. 

4.  By  suffixing  u :  as,  strep-,  strep-u-i ;  doma-,  dom-u-i ; 
doce-,  doc-u-i. 

5.  By  suffixing  v:   as,  ama-,  ama-v-i;  audi-,  audi-v-i; 
no-  (present  nosco),  no-v-i. 

6.  By  adopting  the  present-stem  as  the  perfect-stem : 
as,  bib-,  bib-i;  To-,  Ic-i;  vert-,  vert-i;  acu-,  acu-i. 

96.    FORMATION  OF  THE  SUPINE  STEM. 
The  supine  stem  has  the  suffix  t. 

When  the  verb-stem  ends  in  a  vowel,  that  vowel  is,  if  long,  generally 
retained :  as,  ama-,  ama-tum ;  if  short,  it  is  almost  always  changed,  except 
in  monosyllables,  to  T,  or  omitted  altogether :  as,  doma-,  domi-tnm ;  habe-, 
12* 


138  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

habi-tum ;  move-,  mo- turn.  A  few  of  the  verbs  which  have  a  consonant 
stem  have  -it  (instead  of  t)  in  the  supine,  as  if  from  a  vowel-stem :  thus, 
frem-,  frem-itum. 

When  the  verb-stem  ends  in  a  consonant,  or  loses  its  final  vowel,  t  is, 
when  following  certain  consonants,  changed  to  s.  Before  this  s,  t  and  d 
are  dropped,  or  assimilated :  as,  ed-,  e-sum ;  ced-,  ces-sum  (ced-sum)  ; 
mitt-,  mis-sum.  The  guttural  characters,  g,  gu,  qu,  h  become  c  when  t 
follows :  as,  ag-,  ac-tum ;  the  labial  b  becomes  p :  as,  scrlb-,  scrip-turn ; 
v  is  vocalized  into  u  in  solv-,  solu-tum,  volv-,  volu-tum;  r  (primitively  a) 
becomes  s  again :  as,  ger-,  gestum.— ROBY,  in  part. 

97.    A  TABLE  OF  VERBS,   SHOWING   THE  PRESENT, 
INFINITIVE,   PERFECT,  AND  SUPINE. 

NOTE.— Forms  enclosed  in  parentheses,  as  (jutum),  are  rare  or  late. 

I.  First  Conjugation. 

Present.    Infinitive.       Perfect.  Supine. 

Regular  Form,         -o,          -are,          -avi,         -atum ; 
as,      amo,      amare,      amavi,      amatum. 
Exceptions : — 
1.  Those  having  -ui  in  Perfect,  -Itum  or  -turn  in  Supine. 

Pres.                 Inf.  Perf.  Supine.                 Meaning. 

crgpo,  crepare,  crepui,  crepltum,  creak,  rattle. 

ciibo,  cubare,  cubui,  cubltum,  lie,  lie  HI. 

d6mo,  domare,  domui,  domltum,  tame. 

expllco,       explicare,  {^P11™1,   explicltum, 
( explicavi,  explicatum, 

frt™  frioarP  friftni          I  frlCtum, 


HM.MWJ 

•>    t 

1  frlcatum, 

f     w^* 

mlco, 

micare, 

micui, 

micatum, 

quiver,  flash.  2 

seco, 

secare, 

secui, 

sectum, 

cut. 

s6no, 

sonare, 

sonui, 

sonltum, 

sound. 

t5no, 

tonare, 

tonui, 

tonltum, 

thunder. 

v6to, 

vetare, 

vetui, 

vetltum, 

forbid. 

2.  Those  having  -vi  in  Perfect,  -turn  in  Supine, 
juvo,  juvare,         juvi,  (jutum),  help,  delight.  3 

f  lavatum,        \ 
13,vo,  lavare,          lavi,        |  lautum,  >  wash. 

( lotum, 

1  So  nearly  all  compounds  of  pltco,  to  fold,  which  has  no  perfect  or  supine. 
2DimIco  has  dimicavi  and  dimicui  (twice  in  Ovid),  dimicatum;  emlco  has 
fut.  part,  emicaturus. 
3  Fut.  part,  juvaturus ;  adjuvo  has  adjuturus. 


TABLE  OF  VERBS. 


139 


3.  Those  having  reduplicated l  Perfect,  -turn  in  Supine. 
Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Supine.  Meaning. 

do,  dare,  d6di,  datum,  give. 

sto,  stare,  stgti,  statum,  stand.  2 

II.  Second  Conjugation. 

Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Supinei 

Regular  Form,         -eo,  -ere,  -ui,  itum; 

as,  mftneo,      mtinere,      mtfnui,      mflmtum. 

Exceptions : — 

1.  Those  having  regular  Perf.  in  -ui,  but  -turn  or  -sum  in 
Supine. 


Pres. 

Inf. 

Perf. 

Supine. 

Meaning. 

censeo, 

censere, 

censui, 

censum, 

reckon,  give  opinion. 

d6ceo, 

docere, 

docui, 

doctum, 

teach. 

misceo, 

miscere, 

miscui, 

f  mixtum,  ) 

mix. 

1  mistum,  J 

rgtlneo, 

retinere, 

retinui, 

re"tentum, 

retain.  3 

torreo, 

torrere, 

torrui, 

tostum, 

parch. 

2.  Those  having  -vi  in  Perf.,  -turn  in  Supine, 

deleo,  delere,          delevi,       deletum,            destroy. 

fleo,  flere,             flevi,         fletum,               weep. 

impleo,  implere,        implevi,    impletum,         fill.  4 

3.  Those  having  -si  in  Perf. ,  -sum  or  -turn  in  Supine. 


algeo, 
ardeo, 
augeo, 
haereo, 
indulgeo, 
jubeo, 
maneo, 
mulceo, 

algere, 
ardere, 
augere, 
haerere, 
indulgere, 
jubere, 
manere, 
mulcere, 

alsi, 
arsi, 
auxi, 
haesi, 
indulsi, 
jussi, 
mansi, 
mulsi, 

be  cold. 
arsum,               be  on  fire. 
auctum,             make  bigger. 
haesum,             stick. 
indultum  (late)  indulge. 
jussum,              bid. 
mansum,            remain,  await. 
mulsum,            stroke,  soothe. 

1  That  is,  having  the  first  consonant  of  the  present,  together  with  a  vowel,  pre- 
fixed to  the  perfect  tense,  as,  do,  de-di  (g  95).    In  the  perfects  of  compound  verbs 
the  initial  consonants  "of  the  verb,  not  of  the  preposition,  appear  as  the  redupli- 
cation of  the  perfect,  e.  g.,  con-sto,  con-stiti. 

2  The  compounds  generally  make  -stiti  in  perf.,  as,  praesto,  praestTti,  and 
seldom  have  a  supine;  those  with  dissyllabic  prepositions  retain  e  in  the  perfect, 
as  circumsteti.    Lucan  has  staturus. 

3  So  all  compounds  of  teneo,  to  hold,  which  has  no  supine. 

4  So  all  compounds  of  pleo,  to  fill,  which  is  never  found  in  an  uncompounded 
form. 


140  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


Pres. 

Inf. 

Perf. 

Supine. 

Meaning. 

mulgeo, 

mulgere, 

mulsi, 

milk. 

rideo, 

ridere, 

risi, 

risum, 

laugh. 

suadeo, 

suadere, 

suasi, 

suasum, 

advise. 

tergeo, 

tergere, 

tersi, 

tersum, 

wipe.  1 

torqugo, 

torquere, 

torsi, 

tortnm, 

twist. 

4.  Those  having  -i  in  Perf.,  -turn  or  -sum  in  Supine, 

caveo,         cavere,         cavi,         cautum,  beware. 

faveo,          favere,          favi,          fautum,  be  favorable. 

fbveo,          fovere,          fovi,          fotum,  keep  warm,  cherish. 

ni6veo,        movere,        movi,         motum,  move  (transitive). 

prandeo,      prandere,      prandi,      pransum,  dine. 
respondeo,  respondere,  respondi,  responsum,        answer.  2 

sgdeo,          sedere,          sedi,          sessum,  sit. 

video,          videre,          vidi,          visum,  see. 

v6veo,          vovere,         vovi,         votum,  vow. 

5.  Those  having  reduplicated  Perf.,  -sum  in  Supine, 
mordeo,       mordere,       mSmordi,  morsum,  bite. 

pendeo,       pendere,       pgpendi,    pensum,  be  suspended. 

spondeo,      spondere,      sp6pondi,  sponsum,          promise. 
tondeo,        tondere,        tdtondi,     tonsum,  shear. 

6.  Semi-deponent  Verbs. 

audeo,         audere,         ausus  sum,  dare. 

gaudeo,       gaudere,       gavisus  sum,  rejoice. 

s61eo,  solere,  solltus  sum,  be  accustomed. 

III.  Third  Conjugation. 

Infinitive  ends  in  -ere.     The  principal  varieties  of  conjuga- 
tion are  the  following : — 

1.  Those  having  -si  in  Perf.,  -turn  in  Supine. 
Note. — Perfects  in  -xi  are  considered  as  ending  in  -si,  since  z  is  only  a 
double  letter  standing  for  cs,  gs,  ks,  or  qs. 

Pres.  Inf.  Perf.          Supine.  Meaning, 

alllcio,        allicSre,        allexi,       allecturn,  entice.  3 

asplcio,       aspicere,       aspexi,      aspectum,          behold.  4 
carpo,          carpere,        carpsi,       carp  turn,  pluck. 

1  A  form  tergo,  tergere,  is  found  less  frequently. 

2  So  all  compounds  of  spondeo,  to  promise. 

3  So  all  compounds,  except  elicio  (6),  of  the  unused  verb  lacio,  to  entire.    Pro- 
licio  has  no  perfect  or  supine. 

4  So  all  compounds  of  the  verb  specie,  to  look,  found  only  in  Plautus. 


TABLE  OF  VERBS. 


141 


Pres. 

Inf. 

Perf. 

Sup. 

Meaning. 

cingo, 

cinggre, 

cinxi, 

cinctum, 

gird. 

como, 

comgre, 

compsi, 

comptum, 

adorn. 

cttquo, 

coqugre, 

coxi, 

coctum, 

cook. 

demo, 

demgre, 

dempsi, 

demptum, 

take  away. 

dlco, 

dicgre, 

dixi, 

dictum, 

say,  tell. 

duco, 

ducgre, 

duxi, 

ductum, 

lead,  draw. 

extinguo, 

extingugre, 

extinxi, 

extinctum, 

extinguish.  \ 

fingo, 

finggre, 

finxi, 

fictum, 

form,  invent. 

ggro, 

gergre, 

gessi, 

gestum, 

carry  on. 

jungo, 

junggre, 

junxi, 

junctum, 

yoke,  join. 

nubo, 

nubgre, 

nupsi, 

nuptum, 

be  married.  2 

pingo, 

pinggre, 

pinxi, 

pictum, 

paint. 

promo, 

promgre, 

prompsi, 

promptum, 

draw  out. 

rggo, 

reggre, 

rexi, 

rectum, 

keep  straight,  rule. 

repo, 

repgre, 

repsi, 

(reptum), 

creep. 

scribo, 

scribgre, 

scrips!  , 

scriptum, 

write. 

stringo, 

stringgre, 

strinxi, 

strictum, 

graze,  draw  tight. 

struo, 

strugre, 

struxi, 

structum, 

build. 

sumo, 

sumgre, 

sumpsi, 

sumptum, 

take  up. 

tggo, 

teggre, 

texi, 

tectum, 

cover. 

temno, 

temngre, 

tempsi, 

temptum, 

despise. 

tingo,    j 

f  tinggre, 

tinguo,  J 

(•  tingugre, 

tinxi, 

tinctum, 

dye. 

traho, 

trahgre, 

traxi, 

tractum, 

draw. 

ungo,    j 

Junggre,  . 

unguo,  J 

I  ungugre, 

unxi, 

unctum, 

grease. 

uro, 

urgre, 

ussi, 

ustum, 

burn. 

vgho, 

vehgre, 

vexi, 

vectum, 

carry. 

vivo, 

vivgre, 

vixi, 

victum, 

live. 

2.  Those  having  -si  in 

Perf.,  -sum 

in  Supine. 

cedo, 

cedgre, 

cessi, 

cessum, 

give  way,  yield  up. 

claudo, 

claudgre, 

clausi, 

clausum, 

shut.  3 

concutio, 

concutgre, 

concussi, 

concussum, 

shake.  4 

divldo, 

dividgre, 

divisi, 

divlsum, 

divide. 

evado, 

evadgre, 

evasi, 

evasum, 

go  out. 

figo, 

figgre, 

fixi, 

fixum, 

fix. 

flecto, 

flectgre, 

flexi, 

flexum, 

bend. 

1  So  all  compounds  of  stinguo,  to  quench,  which  has  no  perfect  or  supine. 

2  As  a  bride ;  literally,  put  on  a  veil. 

3  The  compounds  make  -cludo  ;  as,  recludo,  -ere,  -si,  -sum,  open. 

4  So  all  compounds  of  quatio,  quatere,  to  shake,  which  has  supine  quassum, 
and  no  perfect. 


142 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


Pres. 

Inf. 

Perf. 

Sup. 

Meaning. 

fltio, 

flugre, 

fluxi, 

(fluxus,  adj.), 

flow. 

laedo, 

laedgre, 

laesi, 

laesum, 

hurt. 

ludo, 

ludgre, 

lusi, 

lusum, 

sport. 

merge, 

merggre, 

mersi, 

mersum, 

sink  (trans.). 

mitto, 

mittgre, 

misi, 

missum, 

let  go,  send. 

necto, 

nectgre, 

nexi, 

nexum, 

link  together. 

plaudo, 

plaudgre, 

plausi, 

plausum, 

clap  the  hands.  I 

rado, 

radgre, 

rasi, 

rasum, 

scrape. 

rodo, 

rodgre, 

rosi, 

rosum, 

gnaw. 

spargo, 

sparggre, 

sparai, 

sparsum, 

scatter,  besprinkle. 

trudo, 

trudgre, 

trusi, 

trusum, 

thrust. 

3.  Those  having  a  reduplicated 

Perf.,  -turn 

or  -sum  in  Supine. 

addo, 

addgre, 

addldi, 

addltum, 

add.2 

cado, 

cadgre, 

cgcldi, 

casum, 

fall. 

caedo, 

caedgre, 

cgcidi, 

caesum, 

fell,  cut,  slay. 

cano, 

cangre, 

cgclni, 

(cantus,noun) 

,  sing,  play. 

curro, 

currgre, 

cucurri, 

cursum, 

run.3 

disco, 

discgre, 

dldlci, 

learn. 

fallo, 

faUgre, 

fgfelli, 

falsum, 

deceive. 

pango, 

panggre, 

{Pegi, 
Ipgplgi, 

pactum,    ) 
panctum,  ) 

fasten. 

parco, 

parcgre, 

pgperci, 

f  parsum,         1 
(  (parcltum),   J 

spareA 

pario, 

pargre, 

pgpgri, 

partum, 

bring  forth.5 

pello, 

pellgre, 

pgpuli, 

pulsum, 

drive  back. 

pendo, 

peudgre, 

pgpendi, 

pensura, 

weigh. 

posco, 

poscgre, 

pOposci, 

demand. 

pungo, 

punggre, 

pfipiigi, 

punctum, 

prick.6 

rgsisto, 

resistere, 

restlti, 

restltum, 

resist.7 

1  ExplSdo  (hiss  off),  explodere,  explosi,  explosum.    So  the  other  compounds, 
except  applaudo,  which  does  not  change  the  vowel. 

2  So  most  compounds  of  do  (dare),  to  give,  to  put;  as,  abdo,  hide;  condo,  found; 
credo,  believe;  dedo,  give  up;  edo,  give  forth;  perdo,  lose,  destroy ;  pr5do,  betray; 
reddo,  restore :  trado,  deliver  up  ;  vendo,  sett.    But  the  half  compounds,  circumdo, 
surround;  pessumdo,  ruin;  satisdo,  give  security;  and  venumdo,  offer  for  sale, 
form  perfect,  supine,  and  infinitive  like  do,  and  belong  to  the  First  Conjugation. 

3  The  compounds  frequently  retain  the  reduplication,  as  accucurri ;   more 
usually  (in  Cicero  and  Livy)  drop  it,  as  accurri. 

4  Plautus  always,  and  Terence  sometimes,  have  perfect  parsi. 

5  The  future  participle  is  pariturus. 

6  Compounds  have  punxi  in  the  perfect. 

7  So  all  compounds  of  sisto,  to  stop  (itself  a  reduplicated  form  of  sto),  which 
rarely  has  the  perfect  stTti,  and  has  no  supine.    Sisto  is  rarely  intransitive,  and 
then  has  the  perfect  steti. 


TABLE   OF   VERBS. 


143 


Pres. 
tango, 

tendo, 

tollo, 
tundo, 


Inf. 
tanggre, 


Perf. 
tgtfgi, 


Meaning. 
touch. 


Sup. 
„-    ,  „.        tactum, 

tendgre,        tgtendi,  Jtentum>          \  stretch. 
l(tensum),       J 

tollgre,          sustuli,      sublatum,         lift  up,  remove. I 

tundgre,        tuttidi,    (tusum»  }  thump,  pound. 

( tunsum,          ) 


4.  Those  having  -i  in  Perf.,  -turn 

in  Supine. 

ago,2 

aggre, 

Sgi, 

actum, 

do,  drive. 

attingo, 

attinggre, 

atttgi, 

attactum, 

touch.S 

blbo, 

blbgre, 

blbi, 

(blbltum), 

drink. 

capio,4 

capgre, 

cepi, 

captum, 

take. 

contendo, 

contendgre, 

contend!, 

contentum, 

strive.5 

gmo,6 

gmgre, 

emi, 

emptum, 

buy  (orig.  take). 

facio,7 

facgre, 

feci, 

factum, 

make,  do. 

frango,8 

franggre, 

fregi, 

fractum, 

break  in  pieces. 

fugio, 

fuggre, 

fugi, 

fugltum, 

flee,  fly  from. 

impingo, 

impinggre, 

impegi, 

impactum, 

strike  upon.9 

jacio,10 

jacgre, 

jeci, 

jactum, 

throw,  cast. 

lggo,ll 

Igggre, 

legi, 

lectum, 

pick  up,  choose,  read. 

1  The  proper  perfect  and  supine  are  tuli  (in  prae- Augustan  poets  tetuli)  and 
latum  (for  tlatum) ;  but  as  fero  takes  these,  tollo  uses  the  perfect  and  supine  of 
its  compound  sustollo. 

2  The  compounds  make  -tgo,  -igere,  -egi,  -actum,  as  exYgo;   except  cogo, 
cogere,  coegi,  coactum  ;  dego,  which  has  no  perfect  or  supine ;  and  circumago, 
perago,  which  retain  a  in  the  present  stem.    Satago  is  really  two  words :  perfect 
egi  satis. 

3  So  all  compounds  of  tango,  to  touch. 

4  The  compounds  (except  antecapio)  make -cYpio, -cipere, -cepi, -ceptum,  as 
excipio. 

5  So  all  compounds  of  tendo,  to  stretch.    Extendo,  extend,  and  ostendo,  shew, 
have  -sum  as  well  as  -turn  in  the  supine. 

6  The  compounds  make  -imo,  -imere,  -emi,  -emptum,  as   adimo;    except 
coemo,  peremo,  interemo,  which  retain  e,  and  the  earlier  compounds,  como, 
demo,  promo,  sumo,  which  make  compsi,  comptum,  etc. 

7  The  compounds  make  -f  tcio,  -ficere,  -feci,  -fectum,  as  efficio.     The  half 
compounds,  calefacio,  tremefacio,  etc.,  retain  a. 

8  The  compounds  make  -fringo,  -fringere,  -fregi,  -fractum,  as  effringo. 

9  So  compounds  of  pango,  to  fasten;  but  oppango,  depango  (wants  the  perf.), 
and  repango  (wants  perf.  and  sup.)  retain  a  in  the  present  stem. 

10  The  compounds  make  -jicio,  -jicere,  -jeci,  -jectum,  as  conjicio.    In  these 
compounds  ji  is  by  recent  editors  written  i ;  as  cSnTcio,  conicere,  conjeci,  con- 
jectum. 

11  The  compounds  generally  make  -ligo,  -ligere,  -legi,  -lectum,  as  colllgo. 
DTlego  or  dlligo,  love;  intellego,  understand,  and  neglego,  neglect,  retain  e,  and 
usually  have  the  perf.  in  -xi  (rarely  intellegi,  neglegi).    Allege,  perlego,  praele- 
go,  relego,  and  sublego  also  retain  e. 


144 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


Pres.               Inf.  Perf.  Sup.                     Meaning, 

rglinquo,  relinqugre,  reliqui,  relictum,  leave.l 

rumpo,  rumpgre,  rupi,  ruptum,  burst  through. 

yinco,  vincgre,  vici,  victum,  conquer. 

5.  Those  having  -i  in  Perf.,  -sum  in  Supine, 
accendo,  accendgre,  accendi,  accensum,  set  onfrre.2 
compello,  compellgre,  compuli,  compulsum,  compel.3 
contundo,  contundgre,  contudi,  contusum,  bruiseA 
defeudo,  defendgre,  defend! 

edi, 

fldi, 

fodi, 

fudi, 

occldi, 

occldi, 

pandi, 


edo, 

gdgre, 

findo, 

findgre, 

f6dio, 

fSdgre, 

fundo, 

fundgre, 

occldo, 

occldgre, 

occldo, 

occidgre, 

pando, 

pandSre, 

percello, 

percellgr 

defensum,         defend.5 
esum  (essum),  eat. 


fissum, 


cleave, 
dig. 

pour,  rout. 
set.Q 
kill.7 


1  spread  out,  open. 


fusum, 

occasum, 

occlsum, 
J  passum, 
(  -pansum, 

perculsum,       strike  down. 
prehendo,8  prehendgre,  prehendi,  prehensum, 
scando,9      scandgre,      scandi,      scansum, 
scindo,         scindgre,       scldi,         scissum, 
succurro,     succurrgre,    succurri,    succursum, 
suspendo,    suspendgre,  suspend!,  suspensum, 

vello,          vellgre,       jveUl'       }  vulsum, 
(. (vulsi),  -I 

verto,          vertgre,         verti,         versum,  turn. 

6.  Those  having  -ui  in  Perf.,  -turn  in  Supine  [one  -sum]. 

alo,  algre,  alui,          altum,  nourish.\2 

c51o,  cfilgre,  cSlui,         cultum,  cultivate. 


lay  hold  of. 
climb, 
tear,  cut. 
succor.W 
hang  up.ll 

pluck. 


1  So  all  compounds  of  linquo,  perf.  liqui,  to  leave,  which  has  no  supine. 

2  So  all  compounds  of  the  unused  verb  cando,  to  set  on  fire. 

3  So  all  compounds  of  pello,  to  drive.    Repello  always  has  repuli  or  reppuli. 

4  So  all  compounds  of  tundo,  to  beat  or  pound ;  supines  in  -tunsum  occur. 

5  So  all  compounds  of  the  unused  verb  fendo,  to  strUce. 

6  So  all  compounds  of  cado,  tofaU;  except  that  the  supine  is  rarely  found. 

7  So  all  compounds  of  caedo,  to  cut,  fell,  slay. 

8  Often  contracted  into  prendo,  etc. 

9  Scando  becomes  scendo  in  compounds,  as,  descendo,  descendi,  descensum, 
to  descend. 

10  So  all  compounds  of  curro,  to  run.    But  some  have  the  reduplicated  form 
also;  as,  decurro,  to  run  down,  which  has  perf.  decurri  and  decucurri. 

11  So  all  compounds  of  pendo,  to  weigh. 

12  A  supine  alTtum  is  found  in  post- Augustan  writers. 


TABLE  OF   VERBS. 


145 


Pres. 

Inf. 

Perf.            Sup. 

Meaning. 

consulo, 

consulgre, 

consului,  consultum, 

consult. 

ellcio, 

ellegre, 

ellcui,        ellcltum, 

lure  forth. 

frgmo, 

frgmgre, 

frgmui,      frgmltum, 

roar,  snort. 

ggmo, 

ggmgre, 

ggraui,       ggmltum, 

sigh,  groan. 

gigno, 

gigngre, 

ggnui,        ggnltum, 

beget. 

mgto, 

mgtgre, 

(messui),*  messum, 

reap,  mow. 

mSlo, 

mSlgre, 

molui,       molltum, 

grind. 

occulo, 

occulgre, 

occului,     occultum, 

hide. 

pono,  1 

pongre, 

p5sui,        pSsItum, 

put,  place. 

rapio,  2 

rapgre, 

rSpui,        raptum, 

snatch. 

sgro, 

sgrgre, 

sgrui  (in  -sertum, 

connect. 

compounds) 

strgpo, 

strgpgre, 

strgpui,     strgpYtum, 

make  a  din. 

texo, 

texfire, 

texui,        textum, 

weave. 

trgmo, 

tr6m6re, 

trgmui, 

tremble. 

v8mo, 

v6m6re, 

v6mui,       v6mltum, 

vomit. 

7.  Those  having  -vi  in  Perf., 

-turn  in  Supine. 

arcesso,  3 

arcessfire, 

arcesslvi,  arcessitum,      summon. 

cerno, 

cerngre, 

crevi,         cretum, 

separate,  discern. 

cognosce, 

cognoscgre, 

cognovi,    cognltum, 

know.  4 

cresco, 

crescgre, 

crevi,         cretum, 

grow. 

ctipio, 

cupgre, 

cuplvi,       cupltum, 

desire. 

lacesso, 

lacessgre, 

lacessivi,  lacessitum, 

provoke. 

lino, 

lingre, 

levi,           Htum, 

besmear. 

nosco, 

noscgre, 

novi,          notum, 

become  acquainted  with. 

pasco, 

pascgre, 

pavi,          pastum, 

feed. 

p6to, 

pgtgre, 

pgtivi,       pgtitum, 

seek. 

quaero,  5 

quaergre, 

quaeslvi,  quaesltum, 

inquire. 

qulesco, 

qulescgre, 

qulevi,      quletum, 

rest. 

sgro, 

sgrgre, 

sevi,           satum, 

sow,  plant. 

slno, 

slngre, 

sivi,            (sltum), 

allow. 

sperno, 

sperngre, 

sprevi,       spretum, 

reject,  despise. 

*  Say  messem  feci. 

1  PosTvi  is  frequent  in  Plautus ;  postum  (simple  and  compound)  is  often'found 
in  poetry. 

2  The  compounds  make  -ripio,  -ripere,  -ripui,  -reptum,  as,  dlripio,  to  tear  in 
pieces. 

3  Another  form  (perhaps  of  different  origin)  is  accerso.    In  the  passive  infin- 
itive arcessTri  and  accersTri  sometimes  occur. 

4  So  agnosco,  to  recognize.    But  all  other  compounds  of  nosco,  to  become  ac- 
quainted ^urith,  have  -notum  in  the  supine,  except  dignosco  and  internosco, 
which  have  no  supine. 

5  The  compounds  make  -qulro,  -quirere,  -quislvi,  -quisltum  ;  as,  exquTro. 

13  K 


146  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

Pres.  Inl  Perf.            Sup.                    Meaning, 

sterno,  sternfire,  stravi,  stratum,  throw  down. 

suesco,  suescgre,  suevi,  suetum,  be  accustomed. 

tfiro,  t6r6re,  trivi,  tritum,  rub. 

8.  Those  ending  in  -uo  in  Present  Indicative  First  Person 
Singular,  which  (with  the  exception  of  some  already  mentioned, 
as,  struo,  struxi,etc. )  make  -ui  in  Perf.  and  -utum  in  Supine,  as, 

trfbuo,        trfbuere,      trlbui,       trlbutum,         assign. 

In  this  class  must  be  included 

solvo,  solvSre,         solvi,         stilutum,  loose,  pay. 

volvo,         volvfire,        volvi,        vSlutum,          roll. 

9.  Inceptives  in  -sco.     These  Verbs  are  formed  (a)  from 
Verbs  of  the  Second  Conjugation,  (6)  from  Nouns.    The  former 
have  no  Perfects,  except  those  of  the  Verbs  from  which  they 
are  derived,  as,  pallesco  (from  palleo),  I  grow  pale,  Perf.  pal- 
liii ;   the  latter  either  have  no  Perfects  or  form  them  in  the 
same  way  in  -ui,  as,  duresco  (from  durus),  I  grow  hard,  Perf. 
durui.    Few  Inceptives  have  any  Supine. 

10.  The  Semi-Deponent,  f  ido,  trust,  has  Perfect  f  Isus  sum. 

IV.  Fourth  Conjugation. 

Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Sup. 

Regular  Form,  -To,  -Ire,  -Ivi,         -Itum; 

as,      audio,      audire,      audivi,     auditum. 
Exceptions : — 

1.  Those  having  regular  Perf.,  but  -turn  in  Supine. 
Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Sup.  Meaning. 

So,  ire,  ivi,  Xtum,  go. 

s6pelio,       sepelire,       s6pelivi,    sgpultum,        bury. 

2.  Those  having  -i  in  Perf.,  -turn  in  Supine, 
compgrio,    compgrire,    compgri,    compertum,     ascertain. 
r&pSrio,       rSpgrire,       reppSri,     rgpertum,        find. 
v6nio,          vfinire,          veni,          ventum,  come. 

3.  Those  having  -si  in  Perf.,  -turn  or  -sum  in  Supine, 
fnlcio,         fulclre,         fulsi,          fultum,  prop. 

haurio,        haurire,        hausi,        haustum,          draw  up. 
sancio,         sanclre,         sanxi,        sanctum,          decree. 
sentio,         sentire,         sensi,         sensum,  feel. 

vincio,         vincire,         vinxi,        vinctujn,  bind. 


TABLE  OF  VERBS. 


147 


4.  Those  having  -ui  in  Perf.,  -turn  in  Supine. 


Pres. 

Inf. 

Perf. 

Sup. 

Smlcio, 

amlcire, 

itmictum, 

aperio, 

aperire, 

aperai, 

apertum, 

5p6rio, 

6p6rire, 

Spgrui, 

ftpertum, 

salio,! 

saiire, 

salui, 

saltum, 

Meaning. 
clothe. 

uncover,  open, 
cover. 


V.  Deponent  Verbs. 

Deponent  Verbs  follow  the  Passive  forms  of  the  four  Conju- 
gations. It  should  be  remembered  that  they  have  the  four 
Participles  complete  :  viz.,  the  Present  Active,  in  -ns ;  the 
Future  Active,  in  -urus ;  the  Perfect  Passive  (with  an  Active 
meaning),  in  -us ;  and  the  Gerundive,  in  -ndus.  They  have 
also  the  Gerund,  and  many  of  them  the  Supine. 

1.  Deponents  of  the  First  Conjugation  are  all  regular,  making 
the  Infinitive  in  -ari  and  Perfect  Participle  in  -atus. 

2.  Deponents  of  the  Second  Conjugation  make  the  Inf.  in  -eri 
and  Perf.  Part,  in  -itus,  except 

Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Part.  Meaning. 

fateor,2  fateri,  fassus,  acknowledge. 

mlsgreor,  mlsgreri,  miserltus  or  (misertus),  pity. 

reor,  reri,  ratus,  think. 

3.  Deponents  of  the  Third  Conjugation  have  various  forms. 
A  great  number  end  in  -scor  in  the  Pres.  Indie.,  e.  g. : — 


adlpiscor, 

adlpisci, 

adeptus, 

obtain. 

commlniscor, 

commlnisci, 

commentus, 

devise. 

expergiscor, 

expergisci, 

experrectus, 

a/wake. 

Irascor, 

Irasci, 

Iratus, 

grow  angry. 

nauciscor, 

nancisci, 

nactus  or  nanctus, 

obtain. 

nascor, 

nasci, 

natus, 

be  born. 

obliviscor, 

oblivisci, 

oblitus, 

forget. 

paciscor, 

pacisci, 

pactus,  Perf.  pSpIgi, 

bargain. 

pascor, 

pasci, 

pastus, 

feed. 

prdflciscor, 

prSflcisci, 

prSfectus, 

set  out,  march. 

vescor, 

vesci, 

eat. 

ulciscor, 

ulcisci, 

ultus, 

avenge. 

1  The  compounds  make  -silio,  -sillre,  -silui,  -sultum,  as,  resitfo,  to  leap  back. 

2  The  compounds  make  -f  iteor,  -f  iteri,  -fessus :  as,  conf  iteor,  to  confess. 


148 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


The  others  are  : — 


Pres. 

Inf. 

Perf.  Part. 

Meaning. 

amplector, 

amplecti, 

amplexus, 

embrace. 

fruor, 

frui, 

fructus  and  (frultus), 

enjoy  myself. 

fungor, 

fungi, 

functus, 

get  quit. 

gradior,! 

gradi, 

gressus, 

step. 

labor, 

labi, 

lapsus, 

glide. 

I6quor, 

16qui, 

16cutus, 

speak. 

mSrfor,  2 

m6ri, 

mortttus, 

die. 

mtor, 

nlti, 

nlsus  or  nixus, 

strive. 

pattor, 

pati, 

passus, 

suffer,  allow. 

qugror, 

qugri, 

questus, 

complain. 

r6  vertor,  3 

reverti, 

rgversus, 

return. 

sSquor, 

sequi, 

secutus, 

follow. 

utor, 

uti, 

usus, 

avail  oneself. 

4.  Deponents  of  the  Fourth  Conjugation  make  the  Inf.  in 
•Iri,  and  Perf.  Part,  in  -itus,4  except, 


assentfor, 

assentlri, 

assensus, 

assent. 

expgrfor, 

expSriri, 

expertus, 

make  trial  of. 

metlor, 

metiri, 

mensus, 

measure. 

oppfirlor, 

oppgriri, 

oppertus  and  opperitus, 

wait  for. 

ordlor, 

ordlri, 

orsus, 

begin. 

Crior, 

6riri, 

ortus, 

rise.  5 

PARTICLES. 

98.  Adverbs,  Conjunctions,  Prepositions,  and  Interjections 
are  indeclinable.  Some  of  them  are  cases  of  existing  words, 
others  cases  of  lost  words,  others  words  with  case-terminations 
different  from  those  in  common  use  in  Latin,  others  mutilated 
remnants  of  fuller  expressions.  Some  of  the  interjections  are 
simple  natural  ejaculations. 

1  The  compounds  make  -gredTor,  -gredi,  -gressus :  as,  aggredior,  to  attack. 

2  The  future  participle  is  moriturus.  An  infln.  jnorlri  and  emorlri  occurs  sev- 
eral times  in  Plautus,  once  in  Terence,  and  once  in  Ovid. 

3  Properly  the  passive  of  reverto. 

4  Potior,  be  master,  is  of  the  Fourth  Conjugation,  but  in  some  forms  wavers 
between  the  Fourth  and  the  Third.    Almost  always  potltur,  potimur. 

5  OrTor  has  some  forms  of  the  Third  Conjugation  (like  capior) :  Pres.  Ind., 
oreris,  oritur,  orimur;  Imperf.  Subj.,  orlrer  and  orerer;  Fut.  Part.,  oriturus ; 
Gerundive,  oriundus  (used  as  adj.).    The  compound  adorior  has  in  Pres.  Ind., 
adorlris,  adorltur. 


A  D  VERBS.— CONJUNCTIONS.  149 

99.  ADVERBS. 

1.  Many  Adverbs  contain  the  stem  of  some  noun,  adjective, 
or  other  part  of  speech,  e.  g.  : 

a.  Those  which  are  formed  from  adjectives  of  the  first  and 
second  declension,  and  which  end  (1)  in  e  (perhaps  an  old  abla- 
tive termination  for  ed) :  as,  placide,  from  placidus  ;  (2)  in 
6  (ablative) :  as,  falso,  from  falsus ;  (3)  in  iim  (accusative) : 
as,  multum,  from  multus ;  (4)  in  ter  :  as,  duriter  (or  dure), 
from  durus ;  humaniter  (or  humane),  from  humanus. 

b.  Those  which  are  formed  from  adjectives  of  the  third  declen- 
sion, and  which  end  (1)  in  ter :  as,  fortiter,  from  fortis ;  (2) 
in  e  (accusative  neuter) :  as,  facile,  from  f acilis ;  (3)  in  o :  as, 
omnmo,  from  omnis. 

c.  Those  which  are  formed  from  nouns,  pronouns,  or  prep- 
ositions, and  which  end  (1)  in  im  (accusative) :  as,  partim, 
from  pars  ;  furtim,  from  fur ;  (2)  in  tus :  as,  funditus,  from 
fundus ;  (3)  in  c, I  (locative),  o  (ablative),  que,  de,  dem,  etc.: 
as,  hue,  heri,  eo,  ubique,  ibidem,  nine,  inde,  etc. 

2.  Compound  adverbs  are  made  up  of  two  or  more  words: 
as,  hodie  for  hoc  die;   tantummodo  for  tantum  modo; 
quamobrem  for  quam  ob  rem;   magnopere  for  magno 
opere ;  quamvis  for  quam  vis. 

3.  As  to  meaning,  adverbs  may  be  divided  into  many 
classes :  e.  g.,  (1)  Time  :  as,  nunc,  now;  eras,  to-morrow;  jam, 
already.    (2)  Place:  as,  hie,  here;  hinc,  hence;  hue,  hither; 
unde,  whence;   ibi,  there;  in  tus,  within.     (3)  Manner:   as, 
care,  dearly;  eleganter,  elegantly,  in  an  elegant  manner ;  per- 
peram,  wrongly;   item,  likewise;  iit,  how.     (4)  Degree:  as, 
multo,  much;  adeo,  to  such  a  degree;  tantopere,  so  greatly. 
(5)  Cause  :  as,  quod,  because;  e5,  therefore.     (6)  Comparison: 
as,  pariter,  equally;   potiiis,  rather.     (7)  Affirmation:   as, 
vero,  indeed ;  sane,  of  course ;  utique,  anyhow,  assuredly.     (8) 
Negation:  as,  non,  not;  haud,  not.     (9)  Interrogation:  as, 
utrum,  whether  or  no  ?  cur,  why  ?  qu5modo,  how  ? 

4.  For  the  Comparison  of  Adverbs,  see  $  52. 

100.  CONJUNCTIONS. 

1.  In  form,  Conjunctions  are  simple  :  as,  et,  ac,  ut,  aut ; 
or  compound :  as,  atque,  quam  vis,  attamen. 


150  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

2.  Co-ordinative  conjunctions  are  employed  to  connect 
clauses  which  are  on  an  equality  with  each  other ;   that  is, 
either  primary  clauses,  or  secondary  clauses  standing  in  the 
same  relation  to  the  governing  clause.     Such  are  et,  -que 
(always  attached  to  a  word),  ac,  atque,  sed,  vel,  aut,  nee, 
neque. 

3.  Subordinative  conjunctions  connect  a  secondary  clause 
to  a  primary  or  leading  clause.     Such  are  ut,  si,  cum  (quom, 
quiim),  ne,  quo,  ubi,  dum,  etc. 

4.  Some  conjunctions  are  used  in  co-ordination  as  well  as  insubordination. 

5.  As  to  meaning,  conjunctions  may  be  arranged  in  thirteen 
classes. 

I.  Co-ordinative. 

1.  Copulative:  as,  et,  ac,  atque,  -que,  and;  and  a  few 
more. 

2.  Adversative:  as,  sed,  but;  autem,  but,  however;  vero, 
truly,  but;  verum,  but ;  at,  but;  atqui,  and  yet;  tarn  en,  yet; 
ceterum,  on  the  other  hand;  and  the  like. 

3.  Alternative:  as,  aut,  either,  or;  vel,  either,  or;  sive, 
wJietlier;   nee,  neque,  neither,  nor;   and  the  interrogatives, 
utrum,  an,  whether  or  no. 

4.  Causal:  as,  nam,  enim,  namque,  etenim,/or;  enim- 
vero,  for  in  truth,  or  adversative,  but  in  truth. 

5.  Illative  :  as,  igitur,  ergo,  itaque,  therefore. 

6.  Comparative  :   as,  ut,  sicut,  as ;  velut,  as  if;  quasi, 
as  if;  quam,  than,  as;  utpote,  as  being. 

II.  Subordinative. 

1.  Final,  expressing  purpose  or  result :  as,  ut,  that,  so  that; 
ne,  lest,  i.  e.,  that  not ;  quin,  that  not,  but  that;  quo  minus, 
in  order  that  not;  neve  or  neu,  and  in  order  that  not. 

2.  Conditional,  expressing  a  condition  or  contingency  :  as, 
si,  if;  sin,  if  however,  but  if;  nisi,  unless,  if  not;  dum,  pro- 
vided that,  etc. 

3.  Concessive,  expressing  a  concession  or  admission :  as, 
ut,  although;  etsi,  tainetsi,  quamquam,  quamvis,  although; 
also  cum,  although;  and  a  few  others. 

4.  Temporal,  expressing  time :  as,  cum,  when;  simul  ac, 


PREPOSITIONS.  151 

as  soon  as;  ut,  when,  as  soon  as;  dum,  whilst;  d5nec,  until; 
ubi,  v:hen,  etc. 

5.  Causal,  expressing  cause,  reason,  or  ground :  as,  quod, 
quia,  quoniam,  cum,  because;  quippe,  as,  because,  inasmuch 
as;  quando,  since  (because). 

6.  Relative,  expressing  a  reference  to  something  going  be- 
fore: as,  un.de,  whence,  for  which  reason;  quare,  on  which  account, 
wherefore,  why;  quamobrem,  wherefore. 

7.  Comparative,  expressing  comparison  or  likeness :  as,  ut, 
as;  sicut,  just  as;  velut,  as  if;  quasi,  as  if. 

Note  1. — Many  words  in  the  above  lists  are  used  in  more  than  one  sense 
and  one  construction. 

Note  2. — Many  pronominal  particles  are  Adverbs  when  interrogative,  but 
Conjunctions  when  relative. 

101.   PREPOSITIONS. 

Some  prepositions  govern  the  accusative  case,  some  the  abla- 
tive, and  a  few  both  the  accusative  and  the  ablative.  (See 
SYNTAX,  2131;  §186.) 

I.  Prepositions  in  Composition. 

Prepositions  are  often  compounded  with  other  words,  and  in 
many  cases  suffer  a  modification  of  their  final  letter,  according 
to  the  principles  of  euphony. 

A  is  used  before  the  consonants  m  and  v :  as,  a-moveo,  a- 
veh.0 ;  better  also  in  a-fui,  a-fore,  from  absum. 

Ab  is  used  before  vowels  and  most  consonants  :  as,  ab-ire, 
ab-duco,  ab-icio  (ab-jicio),  ab-ripio,  ab-latus,  ab-nego,  etc. 

Ab  is  changed  into  au  in  au-fero,  au-fugio. 

Abs  is  used  before  c,  q,  and  t :  as,  abs-condo,  abs-cisio, 
abs-que,  abs-tineo. 

Ab  before  p  becomes  as  :  as,  as-porto. 

Ad  is  found  before  vowels,  h,  and  the  consonants  d,  j,  m, 
and  v  :  as,  ad-amo,  ad-hibeo,  ad-duco,  ad-icio  (ad-jicio), 
ad-moneo,  ad-veho.  It  is  often  assimilated  to  the  other  con- 
sonants :  as,  al-loquor  or  ad-loquor,  af-fero  or  ad-fero,  ao- 
colo  or  ad-colo.  Before  q,  d  may  become  c :  as,  ao-quiro 
or  ad-quiro.  Before  gn,  or  before  s  followed  by  a  consonant, 
the  d  is  often  omitted  :  as,  a-gnosco  or  ad-gnosco,  a-spicio 
or  ad-spioio. 


152  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

Cum  is  represented  by  com,  con,  or  CO. 

Com  is  often  used  before  p,  b,  m :  as,  com-paro,  com- 
bibo,  com-munio.  Before  1,  n,  r,  the  m  may  be  assimilated : 
as,  col-loquor  or  con-loquor,  con-niveo  or  coniveo,  cor- 
ripio  or  conripio. 

Con  is  used  before  the  other  consonants  not  mentioned  under 
com :  as,  con-fero,  con-tego,  con-sido. 

Co  is  used  before  vowels,  and  h:  as,  co-eo,  co-alesco, 
co-haereo ;  but  the  m  remains  in  some  words  :  as,  comedo, 
comes,  comitor,  and  comitium. 

Ex  is  used  before  vowels,  h,  and  the  consonants  c,  p,  q,  s, 
and  t :  as,  ex-oro,  ex-cipio,  ex-perior,  ex-quiro,  ex-solvo, 
ex-tendo.  Before  f  the  x  is  assimilated,  or  sometimes  becomes 
c  :  as,  ef-fero,  or,  rarely,  ec-fero,  for  ex-fero.  It  is  omitted 
before  other  consonants  :  as,  e-ripio,  e-volvo. 

Note. — But  e,  and  not  ex,  is  used  for  the  most  part  in  e-scendo  and 
e-poto ;  while,  on  the  contrary,  ex  is  used  in  ex-lex,  lawless. 

In  (both  the  preposition  and  the  inseparable  negative  parti- 
cle) may  become  im  before  the  labials  p,  b,  m  :  as,  im-pono 
for  in-pono,  im-buo  for  in-buo,  im-mitto  for  in-mitto. 
Before  1  and  r  the  n  is  often  assimilated :  as,  il-ludo  or  in- 
ludo,  ir-rideo  for  in-rideo.  Before  gn  it  is  dropped:  as, 
i-gnoro  for  in-gnoro.  In  other  cases  it  remains:  as,  in- 
utilis,  in-eptus,  in-fero. 

Inter  remains  unchanged,  except  in  intellego  for  inter- 
lego,  and  its  derivatives. 

Ob  assimilates  its  final  letter  to  c,  f,  g,  and  p,  and  generally 
remains  unchanged  before  others  :  as,  oc-curro  for  ob-curro, 
of-fero  for  ob-fero,  og-gero  for  ob-gero,  op-primo  for  ob- 
primo  (premo).  Before  s  and  t  it  is  frequently  written  op ; 
it  becomes  obs  in  obsolesco ;  and  is  written  ob,  sometimes 
om,  before  m.  It  drops  b  in  omitto,  operio,  ostendo  (for 
obs-tendo). 

Per  assimilates  its  final  letter  only  in  pel-licio  for  per- 
licio,  and  words  derived  from  it.  In  pejero  for  per-juro,  the 
r  is  omitted. 

Pro  generally  remains  unaltered ;  but  we  have  prod  when 
the  second  part  of  the  compound  begins  with  a  vowel :  as, 
prod-erat.  The  r  and  the  o  are  sometimes  transposed :  as 


INTERJECTIONS.  153 

in  por-rigo  for  pro-rigo  (i.  e.,  rego),  and  portendo  for 
protendo. 

Sub  assimilates  its  final  letter  before  o,  f,  g,  generally  before 
p,  and  sometimes  before  m  and  r :  as,  suc-curro  for  sub- 
curro,  sug-gero  for  sub-gero.  Before  other  consonants  it 
remains  unchanged,  except  that  we  find  sus  (for  subs)  in 
suscipio,  susoito,  suspendo,  sustineo,  sustento,  sustuli, 
and  su  in  suspicio,  suspiro. 

Trans  is  often  shortened  into  tran  or  tra :  as,  tra-duco 
for  transduce. 

Note.— Usage  varies  greatly  in  compounds,  in  regard  to  the  retention  of 
the  final  consonant  of  the  preposition  and  its  assimilation  or  other  modifi- 
cation. 

II.  Inseparable  Particles. 

There  are  certain  quasi-prepositions  which  are  often  found  in 
composition.  These  are  amb-,  dis-  or  di-,  re-  and  se. 

1.  Amb,  around;  on  both  sides:  as,  amb-io,  to  go  round. 
The  b  is  omitted  when  p  follows :  as,  am-plector  for  amb- 
plector.    Before  gutturals  and  f,  the  b  is  omitted,  and  the  m 
changed  into  n  :  as,  an-oeps. 

2.  Dis  or  di,  in  different  directions,  in  twain :  as,  dis-pono, 
to  place  in  different  positions.     Before  a  vowel  or  h,  dis  becomes 
dir- :  as,  dir-imo ;  before  f  it  becomes  dif- :  as,  dif-fero. 
It  remains  dis  before  c,  p,  q,  s :  as,  dis-cutio ;  before  other 
consonants,  and  sp,  so,  and  st,  it  becomes  di. 

3.  Re  or  red,  back;  again:  as,  re-tineo,  to  keep  back;  rSd- 
imo,  to  buy  back.     Sometimes  the  d  is  assimilated  or  falls  off, 
the  vowel  e  being  lengthened  to  compensate. 

4.  Se  or  sed,  apart,  remains  the  same :  as,  se-paro,  se- 
duco,  sed-itio. 

102.   INTERJECTIONS. 

1.  Interjections  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  according 
as  they  are  imitations  of  sounds,  or  abbreviated  sen- 
tences or  mutilated  words. 

1.  Imitations  of  sounds. 

a  or  ah )    in   warning   or  sorrow.      Comp.     a;    Eng.,   ah  I 
or  ha   )   Germ. ,  ach  I 
aha  in  reproof  or  denial,  or  laughter. 


154 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


eja     ) 

heia) 

van  or  va 

6 

16 


in  encouragement.     Comp.   tla  ;  Engl.,  hey. 


in  surprise  or  indignation.     Comp.   65. 

various.     Comp.    w,  w  ;  Engl.,  oh  I 

a  shout  in  excitement.     Comp.    i&  and  iov  or  tow  ; 

Engl. ,  yoho ! 
eho  or  oho  a  cry  of  distress.     Comp.  Engl.  Ho !    In  Terence 

sometimes  with  dum  appended, 
pro  or  proh  in  surprise  or  indignation  ;  especially  in  phrases, 

pro  Di  immortales,  etc.     Perhaps  this  is  not 

imitative  of  a  natural  sound,  but  is  a  word, 
euoe  for  evoi :  a  cry  in  Bacchic  rites, 

au  in  fear  and  warning, 

fu  or  fill       expression  of  disgust.     Comp.   <J>EI>  (?);  Engl.,^e/ 

faw  I  foh !  Germ.,  pfui. 
phy  in  impatience  at  unnecessary  explanation.  Ter.  Ad., 

412.     Probably  same  as  last.     Comp.  EngL,pooft. 
hui  various.     Perhaps  a  whistle,  which  is  written  in 

Engl.,  whew. 

babae  |       in  wonder  and  delight :   a  quivering  of  the  lips, 
papae  )        Perhaps  imitative  of  Greek  (3a(3ai,  1^6-^01,  xcnrai. 
hahahae      laughing.     Comp.   a  a  or  a  a,  Engl.,  Haha. 
vae  in  grief  and  anger.     Kepresents  a  wail.     Comp. 

oval,  in  Alexandrine  and  later  writers,  perhaps 

imitation  of  the  Latin  ;  Germ.,  weh;  Engl.,  woe. 

Compare  also  vah  and  the  verb  vagire. 
one  in  annoyance,  especially  when  a  person  is  sated; 

probably  between  a  groan  and  a  grunt.     Comp. 

Engl.,  ugh. 
hei  or  ei       in  grief.     It  represents  a  sigh.     Comp.  £  I  or  I  k  or 

£#,  and  perhaps  alai ;  Engl.,  heigh. 
heu,  eheu  alas! 

ehem  or  )  the  sound  of  clearing  the  throat.  Comp.  Engl. ,  hem, 
hem  or  em  i  ahem.  In  Plautus  em  is  often  found  in  MSS.  for  en. 
st  to  command  silence.  The  corresponding  sound  in 

English,  hist,  is  used  to  attract  attention  ;  and  sh, 

hush,  to  command  silence. 

attat  or  atat  or    in  surprise,  vexation,  fear,  etc. ;  smacking  of 
rarely  attatae      the  tongue  against  the  teeth.   Comp.  arraral, 
drrararaZ,  ororoZ,  brororol  \  Engl.,  tut,  tut. 


INTERJECTIONS.  155 

heus  a  noise  to  attract  attention ;  a  combined  whistle 

and  hiss.  Comp.  Engl.  whisht  1  and  perhaps  Germ. 
heisa  (=  Engl. ,  huzza). 

bombax       apparently  from  poppa!- :  expression  of  wonder. 

euax  a  cry  of  joy.  Comp.  fi»a,  evdfav,  and  perhaps 

Germ. ,  juchhe. 

taxtax         the  sound  of  blows.     Comp.  Engl.  thwack. 

taratantara  (Ennius),  the  sound  of  a  trumpet. 

2.  Mutilated  words  or  abbreviated  sentences.     The  following 

are  probably  such : 
(a)  Latin : 

en  in  Plaut.  usually  em,  Zo  / 

ecce  lo  here  I    The  ce  is  perhaps  the  demonstrative  par- 

ticle. In  the  comic  poets  it  is  frequently  combined 
with  the  accusative  (as  if  it  were  equivalent  to  see) 
of  the  pronouns  is  and  ille  :  eccum,  eccam,  ec- 
cos,  eccas,  ecoa ;  eccillum,  eccillam,  eccil- 
lut ;  once  also  eccistam. 

eccere          used  similarly  to  English  there  I 

mehercules,  meherciile,       |  abbreviations  of  me  Hercules 

mehercle,  hercules,  hercle, )  juvet,  or  me,  Hercule,  juves. 

medms  fidius  for  me  deus  Pidius  juvet. 

ecastor        perhaps  for  en  Castor. 

pol  for  Pollux. 

edepol          for  me,  dee  Pollux,  juves ;  or  the  e  may  be  an 
old  interjection. 

sodes  prythee ;  if  you  will  be  so  good. 

(6)  Borrowed  from  the  Greek : 
apage  off!  away!  for  a-n-aye. 
eu  well  done !  for  ev. 

euge  well  done  I  bravo  I  for  ev-ye. 

eugepae      originally  for  e£ye  nat  ? 

2.  Several  nouns  and  verbs  are  used  in  exclamation  or  invo- 
cation, like  interjections.  Such  are  : 

1.  pax,  hush!  malum,  plague!  the  mischief!  nefas,  infandum,  mon- 
strous! indignum,  horrendum,  miserum,  miserabile,  turpe.  The  voca- 
tive macte,  plur.  maoti,  is  used  with  an  ablative  or  genitive :  as,  macte 
esto  virtute,  go  on  and  prosper.  It  is,  perhaps,  the  participle  of  a  lost 


156  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

verb,  mage  re.     The  interrogative  pronoun,  quid,  what!  is  sometimes  used 
in  exclamation. 

2.  quaeso,  prithee!  precor,  oro,  obsecro,  pray;  amabo,  do  please;  sis 
(si  vis),  sultis  (si  vultis),  please;  age,  agite,  agesis,  agedum,  agitedum, 
come  now;  cedo  (plur.  cette),  here!  give  me:  so,  sodes. 

3.  Less  properly  it  has  been  said  that  certain  adverbs  may  sometimes  be 
regarded  as  interjections :  as,  profecto,  ne  (truly),  cito,  bene,  belle. 


THE   FORMATION   OF   WORDS. 

103.  Words  are  formed  directly  from  roots,  or  from  other  words. 

1.  Root  syllables  maybe  reduplicated:  as,  mur-murt  tin-tin-nare ;  fei- 
be-re,  su-sur-rus,  cu-cu-lus  ;  ( compare  papa  ;)  and  they  may  undergo  inter- 
nal change,  such  as  the  lengthening  of  their  vowel,  or  the  insertion  of  a 
consonant,  or  other  modifications :  as,  voc-is  (nom.  vox),  root  voo  (as  in 
vdcare) ;  stem  crud-o-  (nom.  crudus),  root  cm- ;  flamm-a,  root  flag. 

2.  Almost  all  words  have  some  suffix. 

3.  The  suffixes  of  inflection  are  used  to  form  the  cases  and  numbers  of 
nouns,  and  the  persons,  moods,  tenses,  voices,  etc.,  of  verbs. 

4.  Stem-suffixes  form  the  distinguishing  marks  of  the  declensions  of 
nouns  and  the  conjugations  of  verbs. 

5.  Derivative  suffixes  are  additions  placed  between  the  root  and  the 
stem-suffix,  or,  when  there  is  no  stem-suffix,  between  the  root  and  the  suffix 
of  inflection.  They  may  originally  have  been  words  themselves,  but  are  now 
merely  significant  terminations,  modifying  the  meaning  of  the  nouns  to 
which  they  are  annexed.    The  same  suffix  does  not  always  express  the  same 
modification,  and  different  suffixes  sometimes  seem  to  have  the  same  effect. 
Sometimes  the  sense  of  the  suffix  has  been  obscured,  and  a  further  suffix  is 
added  to  express  what  had  already  been  denoted :  thus,  paella  is  a  diminu- 
tion of  puera,  but,  having  supplanted  puera  as  the  ordinary  term  for  girl, 
a  new  diminutive,  puellula,  was  formed  for  a  little  or  very  young  girl. 

6.  The  long  vowel,  often  found  in  the  same  part  of  different  derivatives, 
is  sometimes  part  of  the  suffix,  sometimes  comes  from  contraction  of  the 
stem-suffix  with  a  short  initial  vowel  of  the  suffix,  and  is  sometimes  due  to 
a  false  analogy. 

104.   SIGNIFICANT  ENDINGS. 
I.  Nouns  derived  from  Verbs. 

1.  The  termination  or  signifies  the  action  or  condition :  as, 
amor,  love,  from  amo  ;  timor,  /ear,  from  timeo. 

2.  Note.— But  many  nouns  in  -or  seem  to  be  simple  or  primary :  as,  honor, 
arbor,  labor. 


SIGNIFICANT  ENDINGS.  157 

3.  The  termination  -tor,  or  -sor,  signifies  the  doer  or  agent. 
Such  words  are  formed  from  the  stem  of  the  supine  :  as, 
vinco,  victum,  to  conquer,  victor,  a  conqueror. 
curro,  cursuni,  to  run,  cursor,  a  runner. 

4.  Note.— There  is  a  fern,  termination  in  -trix,  corresponding  to  the  masc.  -tor: 
as,  victor,  fern,  victrix ;  venator,  venatrix. 

Rem.—  The  terminations  -a,  -o,  and  -ber  sometimes  denote  an  agent:  as, 
scrlb-a,  prae-c-o  (praev5-co),  ed-o,  fa-ber. 

5.  The  terminations  -io,  -tio,  -tus,  or  -sus,  and  -tura,  de- 
note action  or  make  verbal  abstracts :  as, 

obsideo,  to  besiege,  obsidio,  a  siege  (i.  e.,  a  besieging). 
lego,  to  enroll,  legio,  a  legion. 
ago,  (Sup.)  actum,  to  do,  actio,  a  doing. 
mSveo,  motum,  to  move,  m5tio,  a  moving. 
verto,  versum,  to  turn,  versio,  a  turning. 
ago,  actum,  to  do,  actus,  a  doing. 
moveo,  motum,  to  move,  motus,  a  moving. 
cano,  cantum,  to  sing,  cantus,  a  singing. 
verto,  versum,  to  turn,  versus,  a  turning. 
pingo,  pictum,  to  paint,  pictura,  a  picture. 
colo,  cultum,  to  till,  cultura,  a  tilling. 

6.  Note.— A  few  worda  in  -igo  denote  action  or  condition :  as,  vertigo, 
a  turning,  from  verto. 

7.  The  terminations  -men  and  -mentum  usually  denote  the 
means  or  thing  performing  the  action,  or  its  result :  as, 

luceo,  to  light,  lumen,  light. 

tego,  to  cover,  tegmen,  a  covering. 

fluo,  to  flow,  flumen,  a  river. 

impedio,  to  hinder,  impedimentum,  a  hindrance. 

orno,  to  adorn,  orn amentum,  an  ornament. 

8.  Note  1. men  is  sometimes  used  passively :  as,  agmen  (a  thing  led), 

an  army  on  march ;  gestamen,  a  thing  carried. 

9.  Note  2.— In  some  words  of  this  class  the  stem  is  extended  by  a  vowel : 
as,  regimen,  from  rego. 

10.  The  instrument  is  also  expressed  by  -culum  (-clum) 
and  -bulum,  which  become  -crum  and  -brum  when  1  pre- 
cedes :  as, 

giiberno,  to  steer,  gubernaculum,  a  rudder. 
veho,  to  carry,  vehiculum,  a  carriage,  cart. 
14 


158  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

f§ro,  to  bear,  ferculum,  a  tray. 

sepelio,  to  bury,  sepulcrum,  a  sepulchre. 

simulo,  to  imitate,  simulacrum,  an  image. 

pasco,  to  feed,  pabulum,  fodder. 

venor,  to  hunt,  venabulum,  a  hunting-spear. 

flo,  blow,  flabrum,  a  blast. 

11.  Note  1. — bulum  sometimes  denotes  place:   as,  stabulum,  a  stall 
(standing-place),  from  sto,  to  stand. 

12.  Note  2. — When  the  stem  of  the  verb  ends  in  c  or  g,  the  termination 
is  -ulum:  as,  jaculum  (jac-io) ;  cingulum  (cingo). 

13.  Note  3. tram  also  denotes  the  instrument.     When  the  stem  of 

the  verb  ends  in  d,  s  is  substituted  for  d :  as, 

aro,  to  plough,  aratrum,  a  plough. 
rado,  to  scrape,  rastrum,  a  hoe. 
Bern.— Masculines  and  feminines  occur :  as,  cap-ulus,  teg-ula,  sca-lae. 

14.  The  termination  -ium  denotes  a  state,  or  an  act,  or 
the  result  of  an  action  :  as, 

gaudeo,  to  rejoice,  ga,udiwm,joy. 

aedif  ico,  to  build,  aedif  icium,  a  building. 

odl,  I  hate,  odium,  hatred. 

15.  The  termination  -ies  denotes  the  thing  made,  or  the 
result  of  the  action :  as, 

facio,  to  make,  faci§s,  figure,  appearance. 
congero,  to  heap  up,  congeries,  a  heap. 

16.  Note. — We  sometimes  meet  other  terminations:    as,  cupTdo  (from 
cupio) ;  querela  (from  queror) ;  erro  (from  the  verb  erro),  and  a  few  more. 

II.   Nouns  derived  from  Nouns. 

17.  The  terminations  -al  and  -ar  denote  that  which  has 
or  that  which  pertains  to  something :  as, 

amma,  breath,  animal,  a  living  creature  (having  breath). 
calx,  the  heel,  calcar,  a  spur. 

18.  The  termination  -arius  denotes  one   engaged  in  a 
trade:  as, 

aes,  copper,  aer arius,  a  coppersmith. 

argentum,  silver,  argentarius,  a  silversmith;  a  banker. 

19.  -arium  denotes  the  place  where  things  are  kept :  as, 


SIGNIFICANT  ENDINGS.  159 

avis,  a  bird,  aviarium,  an  aviary,  or  place  where  birds 

are  kept, 
aes,  money,  aerarium,  a  treasury. 

20.  -atus  and  -ura,  appended  to  the  names  of  officers,  indi- 
cate the  office  :  as, 

consul,  consulatus,  the  consulship. 
praetor,  praetura,  the  praetorship. 

21.  -ma  denotes  an  employment,  or  the  place  (as  of  a 
business),  or  indicates  the  female :  as, 

medicus,  a  physician,  medicma,  the  healing  art. 
opifex,  a  workman,  officma  (opif  icma),  a  workshop. 
•pisGis,fish,  piscina,  a  fish-pond. 
rex,  a  king,  regma,  a  queen. 

22.  Note. — curium  denotes  action  or  event :  as,  latro-oinium. 

23.  -ium  indicates  occupation,  state,  assemblage,  etc.:  as, 
sacerdos,  a  priest,  a&cerdotium,  priesthood. 

exsul,  an  exile,  exsilium,  exile. 

collega,  a  colleague,  collegium,  an  association. 

24.  -etum  appended  to  the  names  of  trees,  shrubs,  or  plants 
denotes  the  place  where  they  grow,  or  a  collection  of 
them,  and  -He  added  to  names  of  animals  denotes  the  place 
of  their  abode  :  as, 

quercus,  an  oak,  quercetum,  an  oak-grove. 
vmea,  a  vine,  vmetum,  a  vineyard. 
ovis,  a  sheep,  ovile,  a  sheepfold. 
bos  (bovis),  an  ox,  bovile,  an  ox-stall. 

25.  There  is  a  class  of  derivatives  called  Diminutives,  which 
express  smallness  :  hence  also  sometimes  endearment,  con- 
tempt, pity,  or  depreciation.     Such  are  of  the  same  gender 
as  their  primitives.     They  are  formed  by  adding 

1.  -ulus,  -ula,  -ulum,  with  nouns  of  the  First  and  Second 
Declensions,  and  sometimes  other  nouns,  especially  when  the 
dipt  stem  ends  in  c,  g,  t,  or  d :  as, 

hortus,  a  garden,  hortulus,  a  little  garden. 

rivus,  a  brook,  rivulus,  a  rill. 

saxum,  a  rock,  saxulum  (once  in  Cicero),  a  little  rock. 


160  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

radix,  a  root,  radiciila,  a  little  root. 

rex,  a  king,  regulus,  a  kingling,  a.  petty  king. 

2.  -ciilus,  -cula,  -culum,  with  nouns  of  the  Third,  Fourth, 
and  Fifth  Declensions  :  as, 

frater,  a  brotJier,  fraterculus,  a  little  brother. 
versus,  a  verse,  versiculus,  a  short  verse. 
navis,  a  ship,  navicula,  a  little  ship. 
corpus,  a  body,  corpusculum,  a  particle. 

26.  Note  1. — When  the  suffix  follows  a  vowel,  the  u  becomes  o :  as, 

f  ilius,  a  son,  f  Hiolus,  a  little  son. 
gladius,  a  sword,  gladiolus,  a  small  sword. 
negotium,  business,  negotiolum,  a  bit  of  business. 

27.  Note  2.— A  contraction  is  sometimes  formed  (especially  when  the  dipt 
stem  of  the  primitive  ends  in  1,  n,  or  r),  and  the  termination  is  changed  into 
-ellus,  -ella,  or -ellum ;  -illus,  -a,  -urn;  or -ullus,  -ulla:  as, 

ociilus,  an  eye,  ocellus,  a  dear  little  eye. 
catiilus,  a  puppy,  catellus,  a  little  puppy. 
popiilus,  the  people,  popellus,  the  rabble. 
lapis,  a  stone,  lapillus,  a  pebble. 
homo,  a  man,  homullus,  a  manikin. 

28.  Note  3.— Nouns  ending  in  -o  (-onis  or  -mis),  change  -on  or  -in  into 
-un:  as,  homo,  honmnculns  (or  homuncio),  a  little  man;  sermo,  sernmn- 
culus.    So  also  avus,  avunculus. 

29.  Note  4.— Adjectives  also  have  diminutives :  as,  miser,  misellus ; 
frigtdus,  frigtdulus ;  melius-oulus,  a  little  better. 

30.  Note  5. — Many  ordinary  words  in  the  Romance  languages  are  formed 
from  Latin  Diminutives :  as,  from  lusctni-ola,  Italian  usignuolo,  French 
rossignol,  nightingale;  agn-ellns,  French  agneau,  lamb. 

31.  Female  names  are  often  made  from  the  corresponding 
masculine  forms  by  the  termination  -a :  as, 

cervus,  a  stag,  cerva,  a  doe. 
f  ilius,  a  son,  f  Ilia,  a  daughter. 
magister,  a  master,  magistra,  a  mistress. 
cliens,  a  client,  clienta,  a  female  client. 

32.  Some  nouns  in  -io  denote  persons  :  as, 
restis,  a  rope,  restio,  a  rope-maker. 
pellis,  a  skin,  felt,  pellio,  a  furrier. 


SIGNIFICANT  ENDINGS.  161 

33.  Some  nouns  ending  in  -tus,  and  denoting  quality  or 
condition,  are  formed  from  generic  names  :  as, 

vir,  a  man,  virtus,  virtue  (manliness). 
juvenis,  a  youth,  juventus,  youth. 
servus,  a  slave,  servitus,  slavery. 

34.  From  personal  names  (masc.)  the  Greeks  formed  a  class 
of  nouns  called  Patronymics,  indicating  descent :  as,  Priami- 
des,  a  son  of  Priam ;  Tantalis,  a  daughter  of  Tantalus ;  Aene- 
ades,  a  descendant  of  Aeneas.    These  words  are  most  commonly 
employed  in  poetry,  occasionally  in  prose.     Thus, 

1.  Masculine  Patronymics  are  formed  in 

a.  -ides  :  as,  Priamus,  Priamides,  a  son  of  Priam. 

b.  -Ides,  from  substantives  in  -eus  and  -cles  :  as,  Atreus ; 

Atrldes,  a  son  of  Atreus;  Heracles;  Heraclides,  a 
descendant  of  Heracles. 

c.  -ades :  as,  Aeneades,  a  descendant  of  Aeneas. 

d.  -iades  :  as,  Thestiades,  a  descendant  of  Thestius;  Aban- 

tiades,  a  son  of  Abas. 

2.  Feminine  Patronymics  end  in 

a.  -is,  -idis  :  as,  Tantalis,  a  daughter  of  Tantalus. 

b.  -eis,  -eidis  :  as,  Nereis,  a  daughter  of  Nereus. 

c.  -ias,  -iadis  :  as,  Thestias,  a  daughter  of  Thestius. 

d.  -me :  as,  Neptunme,  a  daughter  of  Neptune. 

e.  -one :  as,  Acrisione,  a  daughter  of  Acrisius. 

III.  Nouns  derived  from  Adjectives. 

35.  Nouns  expressing  a  quality  or  state  are  formed  from 
adjectives,  with  tl\e  following  terminations  : 

1.  -ia,  -tia,  and  -tas:  as, 
audax,  bold,  audacia,  daring. 
mollis,  soft,  mollitia,  softness. 
moestus,  sad,  moestitia,  sadness. 
bonus,  good,  bonitas,  goodness. 

2.  -tudo  and  monia :  as, 

altus,  high,  altitude,  height  (highness). 
sanctus,  holy,  sanctimonia,  sanctity  (holiness). 
14*  L 


162  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

IV.  Adjectives  formed  from  Verbs. 

36.  Adjectives  are  formed  from  verbs  with  tbe  following  ter- 
minations : 

1.  -dus  or  -idus,  denoting  quality  or  condition :  as, 
rapio,  to  hurry  along,  rapidus,  swift. 

timeo,  to  fear,  timidus,  fearful. 

2.  -Us,  -Tlis,  and  -bilis,  denoting  capability  or  possibil- 
ity, or  belonging  to,  or  sometimes  actively,  power :  as, 

facio,  to  make,  to  do,  facilis,  able  to  be  done  (easy). 

doceo,  to  teach,  docilis,  teachable. 

amo,  to  love,  amabilis,  lovable. 

terreo,  to  frighten,  terribilis,  creating  terror. 

3.  -ax,  denoting  an  inclination  or  propensity,  and  usu- 
ally in  a  bad  sense  :  as, 

audeo,  to  dare,  audax,  daring  (fool-hardy}. 
loquor,  to  talk,  loquax,  talkative. 

4.  -bundus,   -cundus,    denoting   action,   capacity,   or 
state,  and  -ulus,  repeated  action,  are  more  rare  :  as, 

morior,  to  die,  moribundus,  in  the  agony  of  death. 
irascor,  to  be  angry,  iracundus,  angi-y. 
fari,  to  speak,  facundus,  of  ready  speech. 
garrio,  to  chatter,  garrulus,  babbling. 

V.  Adjectives  formed  from  NOTUIS. 

37.  Adjectives  ending  in  -eus  denote  tbe  material  of  wbicb 
a  thing  is  made,  and  sometimes  resemblance :  as, 

lignum,  wood,  ligneus,  wooden. 

aurum,  gold,  aureus,  golden. 

rosa,  a  rose,  roseus,  like  a  rose  (rosy). 

38.  Kote  1.— To  names  of  trees,  and  of  materials,  -neus  or  -nus  is  usu- 
ally added :  as, 

populus,  a  poplar,  pdpulneus  (or  -nus,  once  in  Plautus), 

made  of  poplar. 
Sbur,  ivory,  Sburneus,  made  of  ivory. 

39.  Note  2.— But  -nus  sometimes  signifies  belonging  to,  or  arising 
from:  as, 


SIGNIFICANT  ENDINGS.  163 

pater,  a  father,  paternus,  belonging  to  one' s  father. 
ver,  spring ,  vernus,  vernal. 

40.  -aceus,  -icius,  and  -itius  indicate  material  or  rela- 
tion, or  property :  as, 

argilla,  clay,  argillaceus,  made  of  clay  (clayey). 
later,  a  brick,  later  icius,  made  of  brick. 
tribunus,  a  tribune,  tribumcius,  relating  (or  belonging) 
to  a  tribune. 

41.  -icus  or  Tcus,  -His,  and  -alis  or  aris  denote  belonging 
or  relating  to :  as, 

bellum,  war,  bellicus,  relating  to  war. 

amor  (amo),  love,  amicus,  friendly. 

hostis,  an  enemy,  hostHis,  hostile. 

rex,  a  king,  regalis,  regal,  of  a  king. 

populus,  the  people,  popularis,  relating  to  the  people. 

42.  -ius,  inus,  anus,  and  -arius  denote  belonging  or  per- 
taining to ;  -ius  being  usually  added  to  the  names  of  persons ; 
-inus  to  the  names  of  animals  ;  -anus  and  -arius  are,  more 
particularly,  local :  as, 

pater,  a  father,  patrius,  of  or  pertaining  to  a  father. 
Squus,  a  horse,  equinus,  of  or  pertaining  to  a  horse. 
urbs,  a  city,  urbanus,  of  or  pertaining  to  a  city. 
ager,  afield,  agrarius,  of  or  pertaining  to  afield. 

43.  -osus  and  -lentus  mean  full  of,  abounding  in :  as, 
periculum,  danger,  periculosus,  dangerous. 

vis,  violence,  violenbus,  violent  (full  of  violence). 

44.  -atus,  -itus,  and  -utus  mean  supplied  with :  as, 
barb  a,  a  beard,  barb  atus,  having  a  beard. 
auris,  an  ear,  auritus,  having  ears. 

cornu,  a  horn,  cornutus,  having  horns. 

45.  Many  adjectives  are  formed  from  proper  names  by  the 
suffix  -anus  or  -ianus,  or  -inus  or  -icus  added  to  personal 
names :  as, 

Sulla,  Sullanus,  of  or  pertaining  to  Sulla. 
Cicero,  CicerSnianus,  of  Cicero,  Ciceronian. 


164  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

Jugurtha,  Jugurthmus,  of  or  pertaining  to  Juguriha. 
G-allus,  Gall  i  eus,  of  or  pertaining  to  Gaul,  Gallic. 

46.  Note.— In  Greek  words  the  usual  terminations  are  -icus,  -eus,  or 
-Tus:  as, 

Socrates,  Socraticus,  Socratic. 
Sophocles,  Sophocleus,  Sophoclean. 
Aristoteles,  AristotelTus,  Aristotelian. 

47.  The  termination  -eus  is  poetical :  as, 
Hercules,  Herculeus,  Herculean. 

Romulus,  Romiileus,  Eomulean.  Horace  has  Romula 
gens.  We  find  also  domus  Augusta ;  portus  Tra- 
janus. 

48.  Proper  adjectives  are  formed  from  names  of  places  by 
the  terminations  (a)  -ensis  (cf.  forensis,  castrensis,  etc.), 
and  a  few  in  -iensis,  from  words  in  -o,  and  from  some  in  -a, 
-ae,  -um  ;  (6)  -Tnus,  from  words  in  -ia  and  -him  ;  (c)  -anus 
from  words  in  -a  and  -ae,  and  sometimes  -um  and  -i  :  as, 

Cannae,  Cannensis,  of  or  pertaining  to  Cannae. 
Carthago,  Carthaginiensis,  of  Carthage,  Cartliagtnian. 
Ameria,  Amermus,  of  Ameria,  Amerian. 
Alba,  Albanus,  of  Alba,  Alban. 
Thebae,  Thebanus,  of  Thebes,  Theban. 
Tusculum,  Tusculanus,  of  Tusculum,  Tusculan. 
Pundi,  Fund  anus,  of  or  pertaining  to  Fundi. 

49.  The  suffix  -as,  gen.  -atis,  belongs  to  names  of  places 
in  -na,  -nae,  and  -no,  but  specially  to  those  in  -num  :  as, 

Capena,  Capenas,  of  or  pertaining  to  Capena. 
Fidenae,  Fidenas,  of  or  pertaining  to  Fidenae. 
Arpmum,  Arpmas,  of  or  pertaining  to  Arplnum. 

50.  Note. — These  adjectives  are  often  used  as  nouns  indicating  the  inhab- 
itants; as,  Duo  Arplnates,  the  two  men  of  Arplnum. 

51.  The  suffixes  -lus,  -aeus,  enus,  belong  to  adjectives  de- 
rived from  the  names  of  Greek  places:    as,  Corinthius, 
Larissaeus,  Cyzicenus. 

52.  Adjectives  are  also  derived  from  Particles ;  some  from 
Adverbs :  as,  crastmus  from  eras,  h5diernus  from  hodie ; 
some  from  Prepositions  :  as,  antiquus  from  ante. 


VERB-FORMATION:  COMPOUNDS.  165 

105.     FORMATION  OF  VERBS. 

1.  Verbs  derived  from   other  Verbs   are  called  Verbals. 
Such  are  the  Inchoatives,  Imitatives,  Frequentatives,  Diminu- 
tives, and  Desideratives  (§88). 

2.  a.  Verbs   derived  from  Nouns  or  Adjectives  are  called 
Denominatives.    Such  are  most  verbs  in  the  First  and  Fourth 
Conjugations,  the  greater  number  being  transitive  :  as,  laud- 
are,  to  praise;  milit-are,  to  serve  in  war  ;  liber-are,  to  set  free; 
laet-ari,  to  rejoice;  fin-ire,  to  end;  vest-Ire,  to  clothe;  moll- 
Tre,  to  soften;  larg-iri,  to  bestow. 

b.  The  suffixes  -ul,  -ol,  -cin,  -it,  -ig  (=  ag),  ic,  occur  in  the  First 
Conjugation :  as,  grat-Sl-ari,  vi-ol-are,  sermo-cin-are,  debil-it-are,  nav- 
tg-are,  mit-ig-are,  claud-ic-are,  commun-Tc-are.     So  jur-g-are  for  jur- 
ig-are,  pur-g-are  for  pur-ig-are. 

c.  Most  verbs  in  the  Second  Conjugation  are  from  Nouns,  a 
few  from  Adjectives ;  the  greater  number  being  intransitive : 
as,  call-ere,  luc-ere,  flor-ere,  flav-ere. 

d.  A  few  U-verbs  in  the  Third  Conjugation  are  Denomina- 
tives :  as,  acu-ere,  metu-ere,  mmu-ere,  tribu-ere. 

Note. — Some  Verbs  called  Denominative  may  be  really  Primitive. 

3.  Some  Koots  have  a  Transitive  and  an  Intransitive  Verb 
corresponding  to  each  other:  as,  fugare,  to  put  to  flight,  fugere, 
to  fly;  jacere,  to  throw,  jacere,  to  lie;  pendere,  to  suspend, 
pendere,  to  hang. 

106.  COMPOUND  WORDS. 

1.  Two  or  more  words  may  be  so  joined  as  to  form  one  word. 

2.  Sometimes  the  words  are  so  joined  that  one  actually  agrees  with  the 
other:  as,  res-publtca ;  jus-jurandum ;  tres-vYri:  or  that  the  second  gov- 
erns the  first:  as,  senatus-consultum ;   veri-simtlis.     Such  compounds 
can  be  severed,  thus :  resque  publtca ;  senatusve  consulta ;  so  that  they 
are  not  proper  compounds  in  the  strictest  sense  of  the  word.    But  generally 
one  part  or  both  lose  the  form  of  words :  as,  magnanimus ;  Trojugena ; 
artifex. 

3.  Some  compounds  indicate  simple  addition  or  association  of  their 
parts:  as,  duodecim,  twelve  (duo-(-decem) ;  suovetaurilia  (plur.),  a  sac- 
rifice of  a  pig,  sheep,  and  bull  (su-  -f-  °vi-  -f-tauro-). 

4.  In  some  compounds  the  first  part  has  the  nature  of  a  case  governed 
by  the  second  part:  as  (Nouns),  agri-cola  (qui  agrum  colit),  a  farmer; 


166  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

vltt-sator  (vitium  sator),  a  vine-planter;  (Adjectives)  arnn-ger  (arma 
gerens),  bearing  arms  (as  noun,  an  armor-bearer) ;  mellT-fluus,  flowing 
with  honey ;  (Verbs)  bellT-gerare  =  bellum  g€r6re ;  aequt-parare  =  ae- 
quum  parare ;  cale-facere  =  calere  fac&re. 

5.  In  some  compound  nouns  the  first  partis  an  adjective  or  numeral :  as, 
pleni-luni-um,  the  full  moon ;  tri-ennium,  a  space  of  three  years. 

6.  The  first  part  sometimes  modifies  the  second  adverbially  :  as,  (Nouns) 
prin-ceps  (primus  and  capio,  one  who  takes  the  first  place) ;  tn-edia  (in, 
negative,  and  6do,  to  eat),  fasting  ;  (Adjectives)  omnt-potens,  powerful  in 
all  things;  bi-f  Tdus  (bis  and  findo),  cleft  in  two;   bene-volus,  wishing 
well;  semi-vlvus,  half  alive ;  septem-ge minus,  seven-fold;  im-memor, 
unmindful;  (Verbs)  bene-dicere ;  ne-quire ;  ad-ducere  ;  ef-femmare  (e 
and  femlna) ;  e-rudire  (e  and  rudis). 

7.  Adjectives  are  sometimes  so  compounded  as  to  imply  "  having  "  in 
some  qualified  manner,  or  "  not  having : "  as,  magn-annnus ;  centi-ceps 
(centum  and  caput),  having  a  hundred  heads ;  a-mens,  de-mens,  not  hav- 
ing one's  right  mind ;  im-bellis,  not  warlike ;  alt-pis,  wing-footed ;  igm- 
comus,  with  fiery  hair;  con-cors  ;  in-numerus  ;  prae-ceps  (caput)  head- 
foremost. 

8.  Most  compound  verbs  are  made  up  of  a  preposition  and  a  verb.     In 
composition,  the  stem-vowel  of  the  simple  verb  is  often  changed : 

1.  a  (short)  is  changed  before  a  single  consonant  into  i  or  e ;  a  before 
two  consonants  into  e  or  u :  as,  facio,  refYcio ;  cado,  occtdo ;    gradior, 
regredior ;  seando,  descendo ;  calco,   inculco.    But  perago  and  others 
retain  a. 

2.  e  (short)  before  a  single  consonant  becomes  i :   as,  teneo,  rettneo. 
But  relego  and  others  retain  e. 

3.  ae  is  changed  into  T :  an  into  o  or  u,  and  in  one  case  e :  as,  caedo, 
occldo ;    quaero,   require ;    plaudo,   explode ;    claudo,   exclude ;    audio, 
obedio. 

9.  Similar  changes  of  vowel  take  place  in  other  compounds :  as,  arnicas, 
tntmleus ;  barba,  imberbis. 

10.  Stems  ending  in  a,  o,  u  regularly  weaken  these  vowels  into  the  more 
easy  and  euphonic  I  before  consonants  in  composition :  as,  caustdicus ; 
signtfer ;  corntger ;  but  the  vowel  is  sometimes  dropped :  as  in  manceps 
(maim  -j-  cap-).    Stems  in  i  retain  i  or  drop  it :  as,  ignrvomns  ;  naufragus 
(navi-).    Consonant  stems  either  drop  their  consonants  or  add  i:  as, 
laptclda  (lapid-) ;  matrtclda  (matr-). 

Note. —  For  the  changes  which  prepositions  undergo  in  composition,  see 
page  151. 


SYNTAX.  167 

SYNTAX. 

SENTENCES. 

107.  A  simple  sentence  expresses  a  single  thought,  or  tells 
a  single  fact,  and  contains  one  finite  verb. 

1.  Every  Simple  Sentence  is  either  (1)  a  Statement,  (2)  a 
Question,  (3)  a  Command  or  Request,  or  (4)  an  Exclama- 
tion. 

Note. — There  are  two  forms  in  which  each  of  these  kinds  of  sentences 
may  be  found,  the  Direct,  and  the  Indirect  or  Dependent ;  as,  Brutus 
killed  Caesar,  and  he  said  that  Brutus  killed  Caesar ;  where  the  first  ex- 
ample is  a  Direct  Statement,  and  the  same  words  in  the  second  example  an 
Indirect  Statement.  Do  you  live  in  Rome  ?  and,  He  asked  him,  "  Do  you 
live  in  Eomel"  are  examples  of  a  Direct  Question;  in  He  asked  him 
whether  he  lived  in  Borne,  we  have  an  example  of  an  Indirect  Question. 

2.  A  Compound  Sentence  is  made  by  the  union  of  two  or 
more  simple  sentences. 

3.  The  Clause  containing  the  Principal  Assertion  is  called  the  Leading 
Clause ;  clauses  depending  upon  it,  explaining  or  modifying  it,  are  called 
Subordinate  ;  clauses  connected  with  it  but  not  dependent  upon  it  in  their 
construction,  are  called  Co-ordinate. 

SUBJECT  AND   PREDICATE. 

108.  Every  sentence  contains  a  Subject  and  a  Predicate. 

1.  The  Subject  is  the  person  or  thing  of  whom,  or  of  which, 
something  is  told  ;  the  Predicate  is  that  which  is  told  of  the 
subject.     Thus  in  the  sentences,  rosa  fl5ret,  the  rose  blooms, 
and  rosa  pulchra  est,  the  rose  is  beautiful,  rosa  is  the  Subject, 
and  fl5ret  and  pulchra  est  are  the  Predicates. 

2.  The  Subject  is  expressed  either  (1)  by  a  Noun,  as  rosa, 
(2)  a  Pronoun,  as  ille,  in  ille  currit,  he  runs,  or  (3)  some 
word,  phrase,  or  clause  standing  for  a  Noun  ;  or  (4)  it  is  im- 
plied in  the  termination  of  the  Verb,  as  curr-Q,  Z  rwn; 
curri-t,  he  runs. 

1.  Words  which  may  stand  for  Nouns  are  (1)  Adjectives,  as  ornnia  flo- 


168  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

rent,  all  things  bloom ;  (2)  Adverbs,  as  satis  temporis  datur,  enough  time 
is  given  ;  (3)  Infinitives,  as  navigare  delectat,  sailing  gives  delight ;  (4) 
Terms  cited  as  words  or  Phrases  merely,  as  "  ad  arma  "  clamatur,  "  to 
arms"  is  shouted;  and  (5)  Snbstantive  Clauses,  as  Quae  sit  natura  lucis 
ambigitur,  what  is  the  nature  of  light  i#  disputed. 

2.  A  full  and  definite  sentence  may  be  expressed  by  a  single  word,  if 
that  word  is  a  verb  in  the  first  or  second  person  ;  as,  curris,  thou  runnest ; 
currimus,  we  run.    The  verb  in  the  third  person  requires  the  aid  of  the 
context  for  fuller  definition  of  its  subject. 

3.  The  Predicate  is  either  a  Verb,  as  fl5rent,  or  a  Noun  or 
Adjective  connected  with  the  Subject  by  some  form  of  the  verb 
esse,  to  be;  as,  rosa  fids  est,  the  rose  is  a  flower ;  rosa  pulchra 
est. 

1.  When  the  verb  sum  is  thus  used,  it  is  called  the  Copula,  or  connect- 
ing link.    It  can  make  a  Predicate  by  itself,  when  it  implies  absolute  ex- 
istence; as,  seges  est  ubi  Troja  fuit,  (there)  is  corn  where  Troy  WAS. 

2.  The  verb  sum  is  also,  or  appears  to  be,  more  than  a  mere  copula,  (1) 
in  the  expression  est  ut,  it  is  possible  that;  (2)  when  it  has  for  comple- 
ment (a)  an  adverb,  as  sic  est  vita  hominum,  (b)  a  preposition  and  case, 
as  est  apud  Caesarem,  (c)  a  Possessive  Genitive,  a  Case  (Gen.,  Abl.,  or 
Loc.)  of  Quality  or  Place,  or  a  Dative  expressing  that  which  a  person  or 
thing  occasions  or  serves  as  :  as,  bona  sunt  viri  ;  summae  facultatis  est ; 
operto  capite  est ;  Caesar  Dyrrachil  est ;  ea  dedecorl  sunt. 

3.  A  predicate  noun,  adjective,  or  participle  is  often  added  to  the  subject 
without  a  copula :  as,  fortis  Julius,  brave  is  Julius  ;  fusi  hostes,  the  enemies 
are  routed. 

4.  A  single  interjection  or  exclamation  may  be  equivalent  to  a  sentence ; 
thus  the  cry,  Oh  !  may  imply,  /  am  surprised,  I  am  pleased,  I  am  pained, 
or  still  other  meanings,  according  to  the  circumstances,  and  the  context  (in 
writing)  or  the  tone  of  voice  (in  utterance).    Other  interjections  may  be 
limited  to  a  single  meaning. 

5.  The  Subject  and  Predicate  may  each  be  modified  by  addi- 
tional words  or  clauses. 

6.  A  simple  sentence   is  enlarged  by  the  addition  of  the 
Object  to  the  verb.     The  object  is  that  to  which  the  action 
of  the  verb  extends  ;  and  is  either  Direct,  as,  Romulus  Be- 
mum  interfecit,  Romulus  killed  Remus ;   or  Indirect,  as,  do 
tibi  librum,  I  give  thee  a  book. 

Note.— The  indirect  may  also  be  called  the  remoter  .object. 


SUBJECT-NOMINATIVE.  169 

109,  SUBJECT. 

1.  The  subject  of  a  finite  verb  is  in  the  nominative : 
As,  equus  currit,  the  horse  runs. 

Note. — A  verb  is  called  finite  in  those  forms  which  are  limited  by  mood 
and  person,  as  well  as  tense.  Hence  all  the  forms  of  the  verb  in  any  mood 
except  the  infinitive  are  finite. 

2.  A  personal  pronoun  is  generally  omitted,  being  implied 
in  the  termination  of  the  verb.     If  expressed,  it  is  for  the  sake 
of  emphasis  or  distinction  : 

As,  natura  tu  illi  pater  es,  consiliis  ego,  thou  art  his  father  by  nature, 
I  by  counsel. 

3.  The  subject  of  an  infinitive  is  in  the  accusative.    (See 
\  238-240.) 

Exc. — The  nominative  stands  sometimes  with  a  present  infinitive,  used 
in  lively  discourse  instead  of  a  present  or  imperfect  indicative : 

As,  pars  cedere,  alii  insequi,  a  part  was  retiring,  others  advancing. 

110.   SUBJECT-NOMINATIVE  AND  VERB. 

1.  A  verb  agrees  with  its  subject-nominative  hi  number  and 
person : 

As,  nos,  consules,  desumus,  we,  the  consuls,  are  wanting. 

2.  a.  If  there  are  several  subjects,  the  verb  is  generally  in 
the  plural : 

As,  aetas,  metus,  magister  prohibebant,  age,  timidity,  and  a  tutor 
forbade. 

b.  But  if  several  subjects  represent  one  whole,  or  one  com- 
bined notion,  they  may  take  a  verb  in  the  singular : 

As,  Senatus  populusque  Eomanus  intellegit,  the  Senate  and  people  of 
Home  understand;  Gallos  a  Belgis  Matrona  et  Sequana  dlvidit,  the  Marne 
and  the  Seine  separate  the  Gauls  from  the  Belgae ;  religio  et  fides  ante- 
ponatur  amicitiae,  let  religion  and  honor  be  preferred  to  friendship, 

1.  If  the  subject  nearest  the  predicate  is  singular,  and  of  particular  im- 
portance, the  verb  may  agree  with  this  subject  alone. 

2.  When  the  preposition  cum  unites  the  subjects,  the  verb  is  sometimes 
plural :  as,  ipse  dux  cum  aliquot  principibus  capiuntur,  the  commander 
himself  with  some  leading  men  are  captured.    The  singular  gives  greater 

15 


170  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

importance  to  its  subject :  as,  tu  cum  Sexto  sclre  velim  quid  cogites,  I 
should  like  to  know  what  thou  and  Sextus  think. 

3.  If  there  are  subjects  of  different  persons,  the  verb  is  gen- 
erally of  the  first  person  rather  than  of  the  second,  and  of  the 
second  rather  than  of  the  third  : 

As,  si  tu  et  Tullia  valetis,  ego  et  Cicero  valemus,  if  you  and  Tullia  are 
well,  Cicero  and  I  are  well. 

Note. — In  Latin  the  first  person  is  put  before  the  second  or  the  third : 
as,  ego  et  tu  et  rex  meus ;  and  the  second  person  before  the  third  person. 

4.  Collective  nouns  may  take  a  plural  verb : 

As,  pars  Romam  inermes  delati  sunt,  a  portion  were  brought  unarmed 
to  Rome. 

a.  Such  nouns  are  pars,  multitude,  vulgus,  turba,  vis,  juventus,  nobi- 
litas,  plebs,  and  others.    This  construction  is  rare  in  Caesar,  and  not  used 
by  Cicero. 

b.  Mille  generally  takes  a  plural  verb,  but  sometimes  a  singular. 

5.  Distributive  words  and  phrases,  as  quisque,  uterque,  pars,  alius  .  .  . 
alium,  alter  .  .  .  alterum,  vir  .  .  .  virum,  are  found  with  plural  predi- 
cates, but  may  be  explained  as  appositive  to  plural  subjects  understood : 
as,  alius  alii  subsidium  ferunt,  they  bring  support  one  to  another. 

a.  The  adverb  partim  is  found  with  the  plural  in  Cicero :  as,  partim  e 
nobis  timidi  sunt,  partim  a  re  publica  aversi,  one  part  of  us  are  cowards, 
the  other  estranged  from  the  state. 

6.  Subjects  connected  by  disjunctives  generally  take  a  singu- 
lar verb : 

As,  si  Aeacus  aut  Minos  dlceret. 

a.  But  sometimes  the  verb  is  plural :  as,  si  quid  Socrates  aut  Aristip- 
pus  fecerint. 

7.  With  aut .  .  .  aut  the  singular  alone  is  used ;  et  .  .  .  et  and  neque  .  .  . 
neque  usually  lead  to  a  singular  predicate,  but  sometimes  to  a  plural. 

8.  The  verb  is  sometimes  omitted  : 

As,  di  meliora  piis,  may  the  gods  grant  better  things  to  the  pious;  turn 
ille,  then  he  replied ;  quid  multa?  (understand,  dicam.) 

1.  This  omission  is  very  frequent  with  the  verb  sum :  as,  nam  Polydo- 
rus  ego,  for  I  am  Polyddrus. 

111.   PREDICATE  NOUN  AND  ADJECTIVE. 

1.  With  verbs  signifying  to  be,  become,  remain,  appear,  be 
made,  be  chosen,  be  thought,  be  called,  and  the  like,  a  noun  or 
adjective  in  the  predicate  is  in  the  same  case  as  the  subject : 


PREDICATES:   APPOSITION.  171 

As,  Aliens  Martins  rex  creatus  est,  Ancus  Martins  was  made  king ; 
quaestor  es  factus,  you  have  become  quaestor;  Cato  esse  quam  videri 
bonus  malebat,  Cato  preferred  being  good  to  seeming  good;  Numidae 
quieti  manserunt,  the  Numidians  remained  quiet;  Antonius  hostis  judi- 
catur,  Antony  is  adjudged  an  enemy ;  ego,  qnae  incedo  rig-In  a  deum,  7, 
who  walk  proudly  the  queen  of  the  gods. 

2.  The  predicate  adjective  agrees  with  the  subject  in  gender  and  number 
also. 

3.  The  verb  may  agree  in  number  with  the  predicate  instead  of  the 
subject:  as,  amautium  Trae  amoris  integratio  est;   more  rarely  in  the 
plural :  as,  contentum  suis  rebus  esse  maximae  sunt  divitiae. 

4.  The  predicate  of  an  infinitive  with  a  subject  accusative  is  in  the  ac- 
cusative :  as,  aiunt  vltam  esse  somnium,  they  say  that  life  is  a  dream. 

5.  The  predicate  of  an  ablative  absolute  is  in  the  ablative :  as,  Cyro  rege 
creato,  when  Cyrus  had  been  chosen  king ;  consulibus  certioribus  factis, 
when  the  consuls  had  been  informed. 

6.  When  a  predicate  noun  or  adjective  is  found  with  esse  (or  a  similar 
verb)  after  the  impersonal  licet  with  a  dative,  it  is  generally  in  the  dative, 
if  the  subject  accusative  is  not  expressed ;  but  sometimes  in  the  accusative ; 
as,  licuit  Themistocli  esse  otioso,  it  was  left  free  for  Themistocles  to  be  at 
leisure ;  civi  Romano  licet  esse  Gaditanum. 

112.  APPOSITION. 

1.  A  noun  added  to  another  noun  or  pronoun  to  describe 
it,  and  denoting  the  same  person  or  thing,  agrees  with  it  in 
case: 

As,  Cicero  orator  interfectus  est,  Cicero  the  orator  was  slain;  hie  liber 
est  Titi,  fratris  tui,  this  book  belongs  to  Titus,  thy  brother. 

Note. — A  noun  so  added  is  called  an  appositive. 
Exc. — An  appositive  to  a  noun  meaning  name  is  often  at- 
tracted to  the  dative  of  the  person  : 

As,  Scipio,  cui  Africano  cognomen  fuit,  Scipio,  who  had  the  surname 
of  Africanus  ;  Africano  being  attracted  to  cui. 

2.  Sometimes  the  appositive  denotes  not  a  general  or  permanent  charac- 
ter of  the  noun  with  which  it  is  in  apposition,  but  one  belonging  to  it  at 
the  time  implied  in  the  sentence :  as,  Cicero  praetor  legem  Maniliam  suasit, 
consul  conjurationem  Catilinae  oppressit,  Cicero  as  consul .  .  .  as  praetor, 
etc.,  or  when  he  was  consul,  when  he  was  praetor;   Cato  senex  scribere 
historiam  instituit,  Cato  in  his  old  age. 

3.  A  genitive  may  stand  in  apposition  to  the  person  implied  in  a  posses- 
sive personal  pronoun :  as,  mea  nnlns  opera,  by  my  activity  alone  (mea  = 
of  me) ;  vestra  omnium  caedes,  the  slaughter  of  you  all. 


172  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

4.  An  appositive  to  two  or  more  nouns  is  usually  in  the  plural:    as, 
Gnaeus  et  Pnblius  Scipiones,  duo  fulmina  belli,  Gnaeus  and  Publim 
Scipio,  two  thunderbolts  of  war. 

5.  If  the  appositive  has  two  genders,  it  usually  takes  the  gender  of  the 
noun  explained:  as,  leo,  rex  bestiarum,  the  lion,  king  of  beasts;  aquila, 
regina  avium,  the  eagle,  king  of  birds;   philosopbia,  magistra  vitae, 
philosophy,  the  guide  of  life;  Athenae,  omnium  doctrinarum  inventrices, 
Athens,  the  inventor  of  all  sciences. 

6.  Such  words  as  urbs,  oppidum,  caput,  city,  town,  capital,  appositive 
to  plural  names  of  places,  are  always  in  the  singular :  as,  Athenae,  urbs 
Graeciae,  Athens,  a  city  of  Greece. 

113.   AGREEMENT  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

1.  Adjectives,  adjective  pronouns,  and   participles,  agree 
with  their  nouns  in  gender,  number,  and  case : 

As,  amlco  fldo,  to  a  faithful  friend ;  haec  sententia,  this  opinion;  car- 
mina  dulcia,  sweet  songs;  doctarum  feminarum,  of  learned  women. 

Note. — An  adjective  is  used  attributively  when  it  accompanies  its  noun 
immediately,  as  psittacus  loquax,  the  talkative  parrot;  predicatively, 
when  it  is  connected  with  its  noun  by  a  copulative  verb,  as  psittacus  est 
loquaz,  the  parrot  is  talkative. 

2.  Adjectives  agree,  in  like  manner,  with  substantive  pro- 
nouns, expressed  or  understood : 

As,  0  me  miserum  (spoken  by  a  man);  me  miseram  (spoken  by  a 
woman) ;  invltus  f  eci,  sc.  ego. 

3.  An  adjective  agreeing  with  two  or  more  nouns  is  put  in 
the  plural.     If  the  nouns  are  of  different  genders,  the  adjective 
is  generally  masculine  if  they  denote  living  beings,  and  neuter 
if  they  denote  things  without  life  : 

As,  pater  mini  et  mater  mortui  sunt,  my  father  and  mother  are  dead; 
labor  voluptasque,  dissimillima  natura,  societate  quadam  inter  se  natu- 
rali  sunt  June ta,  labor  and  pleasure,  things  most  unlike  by  nature,  etc. 

Exc. — The  adjective  often  agrees  with  the  nearest  noun, 
and  is  understood  with  the  rest : 

As,  Orgetorigis  f  ilia  atque  unus  e  f  Tliis  captus  est. 

Note  1. — If  the  nouus  denote  things  without  life,  even  when  they  are  all 
masculine  or  feminine,  the  adjective  is  generally  neuter:  as,  Tra  et  avaritia 
imperio  potentiora  erant,  things  more  potent  than  empire. 

Note  2.— When  nouns  denoting  persons  are  combined  with  nouns  denot- 


AGREEMENT  OF  ADJECTIVES.  173 

ing  objects  without  life,  the  adjective  may  take  the  gender  of  the  persons 
or  be  in  the  neuter :  as,  rex  regiaque  classis  profecti  sunt,  the  king  and 
the  royal  fleet  set  out;  inimlca  inter  se  sunt  llbera  civitas  et  rex,  a  free 
state  and  a  king  are  things  hostile  to  each  other. 

4.  An  adjective  referring  to  a  phrase  or  clause  must  be  neuter :  as,  hu- 
manum  est  errare,  it  is  natural  to  man  to  err. 

5.  The  gender  of  an  adjective  is  sometimes  determined  by  the  meaning 
rather  than  by  the  grammatical  form  of  the  noun  :  as,  capita  conjurationis 
caesi  sunt,  the  heads  (i.  e.t  the  chief  men)  of  the  conspiracy  were  put  to 
death. 

6.  An  adjective  added  to  the  subject  often  has  the  force  of  an  adverb :  as, 
invitus  feci,  I  did  it  unwillingly ;  insiste  audax  muris,  advance  on  the 
walls  boldly;  Aeneas  se  matutinus  agebat,  Aeneas  was  astir  in  the  morn- 
ing; domesticus  otior,  I  lounge  at  home;  memini,  tametsi  nullus  moneas, 
/  remember,  without  any  suggestion  from  thee ;  Hannibal  princeps  in 
proelium  Tbat,  ultimus  conserto  proelio  excedebat,  Hannibal  used  to  be 
the  first  to  go  to  battle,  and  after  the  engagement  the  last  to  quit  the  field. 

Note  1.— Where  the  English  usually  uses  a  relative  pronoun,  as  he  was 
the  first  (or  the  last  or  the  only  one}  who  came,  the  Latin  more  concisely  says 
primus  (ultimus,  solus)  venit. 

Note  2.— The  distinction  between  primus  and  the  adverbs  primum  and 
primo,  appears  from  the  following  examples:  (1)  hanc  primam  orationem 
legi,  this  is  the  first  oration  that  I  read;  (2)  hanc  orationem  primum  legi, 
deinde  transcripsi,  this  oration  I  first  read  and  then  copied;  hodie  hanc 
orationem  prlmum  legi,  to-day  I  read  this  oration  for  the  first  time;  (3) 
bane  orationem  primo  libenter  legi,  postea  magis  magisque  mini  jejuna 
visa  est,  this  oration  I  read  at  first  with  pleasure;  afterwards  it  seemed 
to  me  drier  and  drier. 

7.  Adjectives  are  often  used  as  if  they  were  nouns :  as,  boni  et  sapientes 
ex  urbe  pulsi  sunt,  the  good  and  wise  have  been  banished  from  the  city ; 
Caesar  suos  misit,  Caesar  sent  his  soldiers  (see  §  117,  5) ;  dextra,  the  right 
hand;  hlberna,  winter  quarters. 

8.  A  neuter  adjective  is  often  found  in  the  predicate,  with  the  force  of  a 
noun,  although  the  subject  is  masculine  or  feminine:  as,  triste  lupus 
stabulis,  the  wolf  is  a  pest  (lit.,  a  sad  thing)  for  the  stalls. 

9.  An  adverb  is  sometimes  used  as  an  adjective:  as,  ignari  ante  malo- 
rum,  ignorant  of  former  evils. 

10.  The  adjectives  primus,  medius,  ultimus,  extremus, 
intimus,  inf  imus,  imus,  summus,  supremus,  reliquus, 
etc.,  sometimes  denote  the  first  part,  middle  part,  last  part,  etc., 
of  any  place  or  time  :  as,  summus  mons,  the  top  of  the  mountain; 
media  nox,  the  middle  of  the  night. 

15* 


174  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

114.   RELATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

1.  Pronouns  agree  with  their  antecedents  in  gender,  number, 
and  person ;  but  their  case  depends  on  the  construction  of  the 
clause  in  which  they  stand : 

As,  signum  Jovis,  quod  Phidias  fecit,  the  statue  of  Jupiter ,  which  Phid- 
ias made ;  litterae  quas  dedi,  the  letter  which  I  sent ;  Jason  navem  aedincat, 
quae  Argo  nomiuata  est ;  in  earn  ascendit;  Jason  builds  a  ship,  which  is 
called  Argo;  on  it  he  embarks;  non  sum  qualis  eram,  /  am  not  such  as  I 
was  ;  adsum  qui  feci,  /,  who  did  it,  am  here. 

2.  a.  Usually  the  noun  is  expressed  only  in  the  antecedent 
clause,  but  sometimes  also  with  the  relative  pronoun  : 

As,  erant  omnino  duo  itinera,  quibus  itineribus  domo  exire  possent. 
there  were  only  two  routes,  by  which  routes  they  could  leave  home. 

6.  Sometimes  the  noun  is  expressed  only  in  the  relative  clause, 
especially  when  that  clause  precedes  that  of  the  antecedent : 

As,  urbem  quam  statuo,  vestra  est  (as  for  the  city  which  I  found,  it  is 
yours),  yours  is  the  city  that  I  found. 

c.  The  noun  is  sometimes  omitted  in  the  antecedent  clause  even  when  it 
has  an  adjective  there  agreeing  with  it :  as,  quis  non  malarum  quas  amor 
curas  habet  haec  inter  obllviscitur  1  (—  malarum  curarum  quas  amor 
habet.) 

d.  Sometimes  no  noun  is  expressed :  as,  qui  bone  latuit,  bene  vixit, 
(he)  who  has  well  escaped  notice,  has  lived  well. 

3.  The  relative  is  sometimes  attracted  to  the  case  of  the  antecedent :  as, 
cum  aliquid  agas  eorum  quorum  consuesti,  for  quae. 

4.  When  relative  or  demonstrative  pronouns  refer  to  more  than  one 
noun,  the  gender  and  person  are  determined  by  the  same  rules  as  those  of 
predicate  adjectives  (§  113,  3,4,  5). 

115.  PERSONAL  AND  POSSESSIVE  PRONOUNS. 

1.  Pronouns  and  verbs  of  the  First  Person  Plural  are  often 
used  by  a  single  person  speaking  of  himself:  as, 

noris  nos,  docti  sumus,  you  should  know  me,  I  am  a  man  of  learning 
(lit.,  with  a  certain  humor,  "  you  should  know  us,  we  are  a  learned  man  "). 

2.  The  personal  pronouns  are  used  with  ad,  apud,  ab,  to  signify  house, 
abode :  as,  veni  ad  me,  I  came  to  my  villa ;  Scaurum  ruri  apud  se  esse 
audio,  I  hear  that  Scaurusis  at  his  country  seat;  quisnam  e  nobis  egredi- 
tur  foras  1  who  is  coming  out  of  our  house  f 

3.  Pronouns  of  the  First  and  Second  Persons,  expressed  only  in  the  ter- 


USE  OF  PRONOUNS.  175 

urination  of  the  verb,  may  have  a  noun  in  apposition :  as,  Hannibal  peto 
pacem,  7,  Hannibal,  sue  for  peace ;  omnes  boni  nobilitati  favemus,  all 
we  conservatives  regard  noble  birth  with  favor  ;  soli  Tusculani  vera  arma 
invenistis,  only  you  men  of  Tusculum  have  discovered  genuine  warfare. 

4.  Possessive  pronouns  are  usually  omitted  when  not  required  for  clear- 
ness or  emphasis:  as,  patrem  video,  I  see  my  father. 

5.  The  possessive  pronouns  are  sometimes  used  in  the  sense  of  fit  or  pro- 
pitious :  as,  ventis  iturus  non  suis,  about  to  sail  with  unpropitious  winds. 
This  is  simply  an  extension  of  their  proper  meaning. 

116.   DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

1.  Hie  is  called  the  demonstrative  of  the  First  Person,  iste 
the  demonstrative  of  the  Second  Person,  and  ille  the  demon- 
strative of  the  Third  Person;  hie  referring  to  that  which 
is  near  or  connected  with  the   speaker   in  time,  place,  or 
idea ;  iste  having  similar  reference  to  the  person  or  persons 
addressed,  and  iHe  to  persons  or  things  more  remote : 

As,  huic  homini  (=  mihi) ;  Chrysis  vlclna  haec,  my  neighbor  here, 
Chrysis  ;  hoc  studiura,  this  pursuit  of  mine  (or  ours) : 

muta  istam  mentem,  change  that  purpose  of  thine;  ista  subsellia,  those 
benches  in  thy  neighborhood : 

Q.  Catulus  non  antique  illo  more,  sed  hoc  nostro,  fuit  erudltus,  Quintus 
Catulus  was  learned  not  in  that  ancient  manner  but  in  this  of  our  day. 

2.  Ille  is  sometimes  used  to  denote  fame  or  dignity : 

As,  Medea  ilia,  the  celebrated  Medea ;  veneramini  ilium  Jovem,  adore 
that  great  Jupiter. 

3.  Ille  may  mean  the  other  of  two'  named ;  or,  in  the  plural,  the  other 
side,  the  other  party. 

4.  a.  When  hie  and  ille  refer  to  two  things,  hie  designates 
either  what  is  last  mentioned  (and  thus  the  nearest  in  the 
discourse,  the  latter),  or  what  is  the  nearer  to  the  speaker's 
mind;  ille  either  the  former,  or  what   is  farther  from  the 
speaker's  mind. 

b.  The  two  pronouns  are  also  used  for  distribution :  as,  hoc  et  illud, 
this  and  that.  So  ille  aut  ille,  ille  et  ille,  this  and  that  man. 

5.  Iste  sometimes  implies  contempt ;  not  from  its  intrinsic 
meaning,  but  from  its  use  in  courts  of  law  to  imply  the 


176  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

opposing  party  (iste,  that  fettow  whom  you  are  defending),  or 
from  the  speaker's  apparently  repelling  what  he  names  from 
himself  to  some  one  else. 

6.  Is  is  an  unemphatic  demonstrative.     It  is  used : 

a.  In  reference  to  a  noun  before  mentioned,  as  maximum 
ornamentum  amlcitiae  tollit  qui  ex  ea  tollit  verecundi- 
am,  he  takes  away  the  chief  grace  of  friendship,  who  takes  from  it 
respectfulness.  Its  oblique  cases  are  often  left  to  be  understood. 

6.  It  is  a  simple  antecedent  of  a  relative  :  as,  is  qui  hoc 
fecit,  he  who  did  this. 

c.  It  means  one  (of  a  kind),  such,  especially  before  qui  or  ut 
with  the  subjunctive. 

7.  Idem  may  often  be  rendered  also,  or  at  the  same  time:  as, 
quidquid  honestum,  idem  est  utile,  whatever  is  morally  right  is 
also  expedient.     Sometimes  it  implies  a  contrast,  but  yet. 

8.  Demonstratives  are  sometimes  used  where  in  English  idiom  they  would 
be  redundant. 

9.  The  adverb  quidem  is  elegantly  joined  to  personal  and  demonstrative 
pronouns,  especially  ille,  where  a  concession  is  made,  but  immediately 
qualified  by  an  adversative  clause  (certainly  .   .   .  but) :  as,  tuns  dolor 
humanus  is  quidem,  sed  tamen  magnopere  moderandus,  yours  is  a  grief 
natural  to  man,  I  admit,  but  one  which  should  be  very  much  repressed. 

10.  Demonstratives  and  relatives  are  sometimes  used  concisely  in  a  sug- 
gestive sense,  in  agreement  with  a  noun,  instead  of  adding  what  is  sug- 
gested in  the  genitive  case  or  some  similar  construction :  as,  haec  pulchri- 
tude, this  beauty,  meaning  the  beauty  of  these  things  around  us  ;  hie  metus, 
the  alarm  thus  occasioned;  haec  similitude,  something  like  this;  haec 
defensio  =  hujus  rei  defensio. 

117.   REFLEXIVES. 

1.  Se  and  suus  generally  refer  to  a  subject  nominative  of 
the  third  person  in  their  own  clause : 

As,  fur  telo  se  defendit,  the  thief  defends  himself  with  a  weapon  ;  sentit 
animus  se  vi  sua  moveri,  the  soul  feels  that  it  is  moved  by  its  own  force. 
Note. — Quisque  is  a  frequent  subject  of  se,  suus. 

2.  Se  and  suus  may  be  referred  to  an  object  (which  usually 
precedes) : 


USE  OF  PRONOUNS,  177 

As,  Caesarem  sua  natura  mitiorem  facit,  Caesar's  own  character  makes 
him  milder. 

3.  Se  and  suns  may  be  referred  to  an  indefinite  subject  or 
object  aliquem  or  alicni : 

As,  habenda  ratio  non  sua  solum,  sed  etiam  alionun,  one  must  take 
account  not  of  himself  alone,  but  also  of  others;  bellum  est  sua  vitia  nosse, 
it  is  a  fine  thing  to  know  one's  own  faults.  •# 

4.  Where  se  and  suns  would  be  out  of  place,  the  cases  of 
is,  and  sometimes  of  ipse,  are  used  : 

As,  ChUius  te  rogat,  et  ego  ejus  rogatu,  Chilius  asks  thee,  and  I  at  his 
request;  aranti  Quinctio  nuntiatum  est  eum  dictatorem  esse  factum, 
news  came  to  Quinctius  while  plowing  that  he  was  appointed  dictator. 

5.  Sni,  the  masculine  plural  possessive  pronoun,  is  used 
idiomatically  in  the  sense  of  his,  her,  or  their  friends,  family, 
soldiers,  etc. 

118.    THE  DEFINITIVE  IPSE. 

1.  Ipse  may  be  appositive  either  to  the  subject  or  object, 
according  as  the  one  or  the  other  is  emphatic : 

As,  me  ipse  consoler  and  me  ipsum  consoler,  where  (though  each  is 
translated  in  English,  I  comfort  myself]  ipse  with  the  subject  means,  / 
(rather  than  another) ;  with  the  object,  I  comfort  myself  (rather  than  any 
body  else). 

2.  Ipse  is  also  used  (1)  to  imply  of  one's  own  accord,  as  ipsae  lacte 
domum  referent  distenta  capellae  ubera,  the  she-goats  of  their  own  accord 
will  bring  home  their  milk-swollen  udders;  (2)  to  define  time  exactly,  as 
decem  ipsos  dies,  exactly  ten  days;  nunc  ipsum,  at  this  very  moment;  (3) 
to  express  the  chief  person,  as  Pythagorei  respondere  solebant,  Ipse  dixit, 
the  Pythagoreans  used  to  reply,  He  himself  said  so  (i.  e.,  Pythagoras). 
Hence  slaves  used  to  call  their  master  and  mistress,  ipse,  ipsa ;  and  Catul- 
lus uses  ipsa  for  era. 

119.   INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS,   ETC. 

1.  The  Indefinite  Pronouns  quis,  qul,  cannot  begin  a  sentence.    They 
usually  follow  some  particle  (si,  nisi,  ne,  an,  num,  ut,  etc.),  or  a  relative; 
but  are  sometimes  used  without  a  particle,  as  dixerit  quis,  some  one  may 
say. 

2.  Nescio  quis,  nescio  qui,  are  used  as  indefinite  pronouns  in  the  sense 
of  some  (person  or  thing)  or  other.    Compare  the  French,  j«  ne  sais  quoi. 
So  nescio  quo,  nescio  quando. 

M 


178  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

3.  Aliquis,  aliqui,  some,  are  somewhat  less  indefinite  than  quis,  qui. 

4.  Occasionally  aliquis  means  a  person  of  importance,  as  sese  aliquem 
ere  dens,  considering  himself  somebody. 

5.  Quispiam  is  used  with  more  emphasis  than  quis,  and  rather  less  than 
aliquis.    Quispiam  is  found  chiefly  in  positive  sentences ;  quisquam  chiefly 
in  negative  and  dubitative  sentences ;  nonnullus  only  in  a  positive,  ullus 
only  in  a  negative  or  dubitative  construction. 

6.  QuTdam,  a  certain  one,  implies  that  the  subject  is  definitely  known, 
though  indefinitely  described ;  thus  :  quodam  tempore  natus  sum,  aliquo 
moriar,  I  was  born  at  a  certain  time,  I  shall  die  some  time  or  other.    It  is 
joined  with  epithets  :  as,  spinosa  quaedam  et  exilis  oratio,  a  certain  prickly 
and  lean  style.     It  occasionally  means  some  as  opposed  to  the  whole  or 
others:  as,  nullis  piscibus   supra  quaternas  pinnae  sunt,  quibusdam 
blnae,  aliquibus  nullae,  no  fishes  have  more  than  four  fins,  some  two,  a  few 
none  at  all.    Hence  it  qualifies  an  expression  not  meant  to  be  taken  strictly : 
as,  in  ideis  Plato  quiddam  dlvinum  esse  dicebat,  Plato  used  to  say  that 
in  ideas  there  is  something  divine. 

QuTdam  also  stands  in  contrast  to  qulvis,  qullibet,  any  you  will:  as, 
ut  saltatori  motus  non  qulvis  sed  certus  quidam  est  datus,  sic  vita 
agenda  est  certo  genere  quodam  non  quolibet,  as  to  a  dancer  is  assigned 
not  any  optional  movement,  but  a  certain  definite  one,  so  must  life  be  passed 
in  a  certain  definite  way,  not  in  any  we  please. 

7.  Quisque  means  each  of  any  number.     (It  occurs  in  Plautus  in  the 
sense  of  quisquis,  whosoever.) 

8.  The  Universal  Relatives,  whether  compounded  with  -cumque,  or  of 
the  duplicated  form,  have  no  special  idioms  distinguishing  them  from  other 
relatives. 

9.  Pronominal  Adjectives.— a.  Alter  is  one  of  tico :  as,  claudus  fuit 
altero  pede,  he  was  lame  of  one  foot.    It  answers  the  question  uter,  which 
of  two  f 

b.  Two  cases  of  alter  (as  of  alius)  may  stand  in  the  same  clause,  dis- 
tributing ambo,  uterque,  ete. :  as,  uterque  horum  medium  quiddam  vole- 
bat  sequi ;  sed  ita  cadebat  ut  alter  ex  alterius  laude  partem,  uterque 
autem  suam  totam  haberet :  both  these  men  wished  to  attain  a  mean  ;  but  it 
so  fell  out  that  one  had  a  share  of  the  other's  credit,  while  each  possessed  his 
own  entire.    Uterque  means  each  of  two ;  alteruter,  one  or  the  other  of  two. 

Alter  alterum  amat,  they  love  one  another ;  (also  expressed  4>y,  amant 
se  invicem ;  mutuo  amant ;  amant  inter  se.) 
Alter!  .  .  .  alteri,  one  party,  .  .  .  tht  other  party. 

c.  Alter  sometimes  means  a  second,  another  besides  one  named  or  im- 
plied: alter  erit  turn  Tiphys,  then  will  there  be  a  second  Tiphys  ;  alterum 
tan  turn,  as  much  again. 

d.  Alins  repeated  in  successive  clauses  means  one,  another,  another,  and 
so  on,  without  limit  of  number.    In  like  manner  the  adverbs  of  alius, 


NOMINATIVE:    VOCATIVE:   ACCUSATIVE.  179 

aliter,  alias,  alibi,  alio,  etc. :  as,  alias  contenting,  alias  remissins,  at  one 
time  more  vigorously,  at  another  more  slackly. 

e.  Repeated  in  the  same  clause,  or  joined  with  one  of  its  adverbs,  alius  may 
be  translated  by  the  word  different,  or  more  commonly,  by  two  separate 
clauses,  rendered  in  the  first  by  one  .  .  .  one,  and  in  the  second  by  another 
.  .  .  another :  as,  aliud  aliis  videtur  optimum,  one  thing  seems  best  to  one, 
another  to  another;  aliis  aliunde  perlculum  est,  danger  threatens  different 
persons  from  different  sources. 

THE   CASES. 
120.  NOMINATIVE  AND  VOCATIVE. 

1.  The  nominative  is  used  as  the  subject  of  a  finite  verb 
(§.  109),  as  an  appositive  (§  112),  or  in  the  predicate  after 
verbs  signifying  to  be,  to  be  called,  etc.  (§  111.) 

2.  The  vocative,  with  or  without  an  interjection,  is  used  in 
addressing  a  person  or  thing : 

As,  vincere  scis,  Hannibal,   adeste,  amlci!    0  dii  boni!  heu  virgo! 

ah  stulte ! 

3.  The  nominative  may  stand  with  the  interjections  en, 
ecce,  0,  and  others : 

As,  ecce  nuntii,  ecce  litterae,  Caesarem  ad  Corfinium,  lo  couriers  and 
letters  stating  that  Caesar  is  at  Corfinium ;  0  vir  fortis  atque  amlcus ! 

4.  In  the  poets,  and  in  antiquated  style,  the  nominative  is 
sometimes  found  for  the  vocative : 

As,  almae  fllius  Maiae ! 

Thus  often,  when  the  noun  is  collective,  or  when  the  word 
is  an  attributive  or  an  appositive : 
As,  audi  tu,  populus  Albanus ;  nudus  jaciture  sepulcro. 

5.  In  prose  the  vocative  is  usually  placed  after  some  other  words  in  the 
proposition :  as,  credo  ego  vos,  judices,  mirari.    But  it  may  be  prefixed 
with  a  kind  of  solemn  dignity,  or  in  vehement  expressions  of  feeling. 

ACCUSATIVE. 
121.  ACCUSATIVE  OF  DIRECT  OBJECT. 

1.  The  direct  object  of  a  transitive  verb  is  put  in  the  accu- 
sative : 


180  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

As,  mater  alit  pullos,  the  mother  nourishes  her  young;  in  primis  vene- 
rare  Deum,  in  the  first  place  worship  God;  pudet  me  (lit.  it  shames  me), 
/  am  ashamed. 

Bern.— The  object  of  a  transitive  verb  in  the  active  voice  becomes  the 
subject  of  the  verb  in  the  passive  voice :  as,  pulli  a  matre  aluntur,  the 
young  are  nourished  by  the  mother. 

Note  1.— Impersonal  verbs  governing  the  accusative  are  referred  to  this 
rule. 

Note  2. — An  infinitive  or  a  clause  may  be  the  subject  of  a  verb. 

Note  3. — After  verbs  denoting  the  operations  of  the  senses  or  intellectual 
powers,  and  some  verbs  of  causing  and  effecting,  the  subject  of  the  governed 
clause  is  sometimes  (especially  in  the  older  writers)  attracted  as  object  to 
the  governing  verb :  as,  nosti  Marcellum,  quam  tardus  sit,  you  know  Mar- 
ceflus,  hoic  slow  he  is,  instead  of  nosti  quam  tardus  sit  Marcellus.  Com- 
pare, /  know  thee,  who  thou  art.  This  idiom  is  used  sometimes  where  it 
cannot  be  imitated  in  English :  as,  quis  tnum  patrem  .  .  .  qui  esset  audi- 
vit,  who  heard  who  your  father  was. 

2.  Some  verbs  are  sometimes  used  as  transitives  in  Latin,  though  trans- 
lated in  English  by  intransitives  followed  by  a  preposition.    Such  are 

a.  Many  intransitive  verbs  denoting  a  feeling  or  state  of  the  mind  :  as, 
honoris  desperant,  they  despair  of  honors  ;  casum  hunc  doleo,  I  grieve  for 
thij  misfortune. 

b.  Verbs  signifying  to  have  the  smell  of,  have  the  taste  of,  to  thirst  for, 
breathe  out,  sound  like,  etc.:  as,  olet  vlnnm,  he  smells  of  wine;  anhelat 
scelus,  he  breathes  out  crime ;  vox  hominem  sonat,  her  voice  sounds  like  a 
man. 

c.  The  poets  go  very  for  in  giving  intransitive  verbs  a  transitive  signifi- 
cation.   (See  §  124.) 

d.  The  passive  of  such  verbs  is  used  more  rarely;  but  we  find  rldeor,  / 
am  laughed  at;  triumphatae  gentis ;  nox  vigilata  ;  regnata  rura. 

3.  In  the  comic  poets,  an  accusative  is  sometimes  found  with  verbal 
nouns  :  as,  istum  tactio ;  hanc  curatio  rem. 

4.  The  participial  in  -bundus  sometimes  takes  an  accusative :  as,  popula- 
bundus  agros. 

5.  The  verb  is  sometimes  omitted,  in  phrases  in  which  it  is  easily  sup- 
plied :  as,  unde  mini  lapidem  1  where  shall  J  get  a  stone  f 

122.  COMPOUNDS  BECOMING   TRANSITIVE. 

Intransitive  verbs  of  motion  sometimes  become  transitive 
when  compounded  with  a  preposition. 

As,  hostes  circumlre ;  translre  finmen ;  oocumbere  mortem, 
a.  So  some  verbs  of  position  :  as,  equites  circumstant  senatum. 


SYNTAX  OF  THE  ACCUSATIVE.  181 

Note  1. — Most  of  these  verbs  can  be  used  in  the  passive :  as,  angustias 
Themistocles  quaerebat,  ne  multitudine  circumiretur. 

Note  2. — Compounds  with  trans,  circum,  and  ad  can  take  two  accusa- 
tives, if  the  simple  verb  is  transitive :  as,  transjicere  exercitum  flume n. 

Note  3.  —The  preposition  may  be  repeated  :  as,  trans  Rhodanum  copias 
trajecit. 

Note  4. — When  such  compounds  take  on  a  new  meaning,  differing  from 
the  simple  meaning  of  the  verb,  they  are  generally  construed  without  a 
preposition:  as,  inlre  in  urbem,  to  go  into  the  city ;  inlre  proelium,  to 
begin  a  battle;  adire  ad  aliquem,  to  go  to;  adlre  aliquem,  to  consult. 

123.    COGNATE  ACCUSATIVE. 

An  intransitive  verb  often  takes  an  accusative  of  kindred 
meaning.  This  accusative  repeats  the  idea  already  contained 
in  the  verb,  and  is  usually  modified  by  an  adjective  or  pro- 
noun: 

As,  vltam  jucundam  vlvere,  to  live  a  delightful  life;  hoc  bellum  bel- 
lare,  to  wage  this  war  ;  mirum  somniare  somnium,  to  dream  a  wonderful 
dream. 

124.  LIMITING   OR  DEFINING  ACCUSATIVE. 

Intransitive  verbs  sometimes  take  an  accusative  limiting 
their  meaning,  especially  in  the  poets : 

As,  coronari  Olympia,  to  be  crowned  as  an  Olympic  victor ;  saltare  Cy- 
clopa,  to  dance  the  Cyclops. 

Note  1. — To  this  rule  may  be  referred  the  use  of  the  accusative  of  neuter 
adjectives  and  pronouns  after  intransitives :  as,  dulce  ridere  (— dulcem 
risum  ridere),  to  smile  sweetly;  torvum  clamare;  acerba  tueri,  to  look 
bitter  things ;  aeternum  vTvere  ;  hoc  studet  unum,  he  makes  this  one  thing 
his  aim;  id  laetor,  I  am  pleased  at  this;  idem  gloria tur,  he  makes  the 
same  boast.  This  is  the  accusative  of  the  inner  object. 

Note  2. — A  limiting  accusative  of  a  pronoun  may  be  added  to  a  transi- 
tive verb  with  an  accusative  of  the  person  :  as,  hoc  te  hortor,  I  give  thee 
this  exhortation. 

125.   ACCUSATIVE  AFTER  PASSIVES   USED  RE- 
FLEXIVELY. 

The  passive  of  some  verbs  in  the  poets  and  later  prose 
writers  is  used  like  the  Greek  middle  to  describe  an  action 
done  by  the  agent  to  or  for  himself,  and  takes  an  accusative : 

As,  Priamus  ferrum  cingitur,  Priam  girds  on  his  blade;  Androgei 
16 


182  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

galeam  induitur,  he  dons  the  helmet  of  Androgeos ;  virgines  longam  in- 
dutae  vestem. 

Note. — In  classical  prose  we  have  the  ablative,  cingitur  ferro ;  indutus 
veste  alba. 

TWO  ACCUSATIVES. 

126.  Verbs  meaning  to  name,  call,  make,  choose,  think,  take, 
and  some  others,  may  take  two  accusatives,  one  of  the  object, 
the  other  of  the  predicate : 

As,  urbem  Eomam  vocavit,  he  called  the  city  Rome ;  Socrates  totins 
mundi  se  civem  arbitrabatur,  Socrates  was  wont  to  think  himself  a  citizen 
of  the  whole  world  ;  judicem  populum  Romanum  cepere,  they  took  the  Ro- 
man people  as  their  judge;  gratum  me  praebeo,  I  show  myself  grateful. 

127.  Doceo,  /  teach,  and  its  compounds,  celo,  /  conceal,  and 
some  verbs  of  asking  and  demanding,  govern  two  accusatives, 
one  of  the  person  and  the  other  of  the  thing : 

As,  te  litteras  doceo,  Iteachthee  literature;  iter  omnes  celat,  he  conceals 
his  journey  from  all. 

1.  Instead  of  the  accusative,  we  often  find  the  ablative  of  the  thing 
with  de. 

2.  Peto  and  postulo  take  always  the  ablative  of  the  person  with  ab,  and 
quaero  takes  the  ablative  of  the  person  with  ab,  de,  or  ex. 

3.  While  the  art  taught  is  put  in  the  accusative,  the  instrument  is  put 
in  the  ablative :  as,  aliquem  fidibus  docere ;   docendum  equo  armisque. 
Doctus  generally  takes  the  ablative. 

4.  Verbs  that  in  the  active  voice  take  two  accusatives,  in  the  passive 
retain  one,  while  the  other  becomes  the  subject. 

128.  ACCUSATIVE  OF  SPECIFICATION  AND  AD- 

VERBIAL ACCUSATIVE. 

1.  The  accusative  of  specification  may  be  joined  with  a  verb 
or  adjective  to  denote  that  in  respect  to  which  the  expression  is 
used: 

As,  tremit  artus,  he  trembles  in  his  limbs;  os  humerosque  deo  similis, 
in  face  and  shoulders  like  a  god;  cetera  egregius,  excellent  in  other  re- 
spects ;  caput  nectentur,  their  heads  shall  be  bound. 

Note. — This  is  often  called  the  Greek  accusative,  or  the  accusative  by 
synecddche.  It  denotes  particularly  the  part  affected. 

2.  The  accusative  in  certain  expressions  is  used  adverbially  : 


SYNTAX  OF  THE  ACCUSATIVE,  183 

As,  maximam  pattern,  for  the  most  part;  meam  vicem,  on  my  account  ; 
quod  si,  but  if  (lit.  as  to  which,  if). 
The  accusative  in  these  expressions  is  often  an  accusative  of  extent. 

3.  In  a  few  phrases,  the  adverbial  accusative  stands  where  we  might 
expect  the  genitive  or  ablative :  as,  id  temporis  (eo  tempore),  at  that  time ; 
id  genus  alia,  other  things  of  that  kind. 

4.  In  the  comic  poets,  and  more  rarely  in   other  writers,  a  sentence 
sometimes  begins  with  an  accusative  antecedent  to  a  following  relative  in 
the  same  case. 

129.  ACCUSATIVE  OF  EXTENT  OF  TIME  OR  SPACE. 
1.  The  accusative  is  used  to  denote  extent  of  time  or  space : 

As,   decem  annos   urbs   oppugnata  est,  the  city  was  besieged  for  ten 
years;  fossa  duos  pedes  lata,  a  ditch  two  feet  broad. 

2.  Time  throughout  which  may  be  denoted  by  per  with  the  accusative. 

3.  Duration  of  time  is  sometimes  expressed  by  the  ablative ;  but  rarely 
in  the  best  writers.    This  is  a  free  use  of  time  in  which  for  time  through- 
out which.    (See  g  185,  10.) 

4.  A  specified  distance  may  stand  either  in  the  accusative  of  extent,  or 
the  ablative  of  measure.     If  spatium  or  intervallum  be  used,  they  are  in 
the  ablative,  and  govern  a  defining  genitive. 

5.  When  the  place  from  which  the  distance  is  reckoned  is  not  men- 
tioned, ab  often  stands  before  the  words  stating  the  distance :  as,  a  milli- 
bus  passuum  duobus,  two  miles  off. 

130.    TERMINAL  ACCUSATIVE. 

1.  After  verbs  implying  motion,  the  names  of  towns  and 
small  islands  are  put  in  the  accusative  without  a  preposition, 
to  denote  the  place  whither. 

As,  Athenas  profectus  est,  he  set  out  for  Athens;  missi  sunt  Delphos, 
they  were  sent  to  Delphi. 

2.  Names  of  countries  and  large  islands  generally  take  a 
preposition ;   but  the  preposition  is  sometimes  omitted,  espe- 
cially in  poetry. 

3.  Domus  and  rus  are  put  in  the  accusative  after  verbs  of 
motion,  like  names  of  towns : 

As,  rus  Tbo,  I  shall  go  to  the  country;  rediit  domum,  he  returned  home; 
cohortes  Latlnae  Hernicaeque  remissae  (sunt)  domes,  to  their  homes. 


184  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

\%\. /ACCUSATIVE  AFTER  PREPOSITIONS. 
1.  Twenty-eight  Prepositions  govern  the  accusative. 

These  are  ad,  adversus  or  adversum,  ante,  apud,  circa,  circnm,  circTter, 
cis  or  citra,  contra,  erga,  extra,  infra,  inter,  intra,  juxta,  ob,  penes,  per, 
pone,  post,  praeter,  prope,  propter,  secundum,  supra,  trans,  ultra,  and 
versus. 

2.  The  comparative  propius  and  superlative  proximo  also  take  an 
accusative :  as,  propius  urbem,  nearer  the  city. 

3.  In  and  sub  are  followed  by  the  accusative  when  they 
denote  motion  to  a  place ;   denoting  situation,  they  are  fol- 
lowed by  the  ablative : 

As,  Ire  in  urbem,  to  go  into  the  city ;  in  urbe  esse,  to  be  in  the  city  ; 
sub  scalas  se  conjecit,  he  threw  himself  under  the  stairs  ;  sub  mensa  jacet, 
he  lies  under  the  table. 

Note. — In  with  the  accusative  may  mean  for,  about,  against,  etc. 

4.  Super  and  subter  generally  govern  the  accusative,  but 
sometimes  take  the  ablative  in  poetry  ;  when  super  means  con- 
cerning, it  takes  the  ablative  in  prose. 

5.  Versus  or  versum  always  follows  its  case :  as,  Eomam  versus  con- 
tendit,  he  marched  towards  Home.     The  best  writers  subjoin  it  to  a  case 
governed  by  ad  or  in.    Postpositive  also  sometimes  are  propter,  contra, 
ante,  circa,  circum,  inter,  juxta,  penes,  subter,  super,  supra,  and  per, 
especially  after  personal  and  relative  pronouns,  and  in  the  poets.    See 
Verg.  Aen.  4,  671. 

132.   ACCUSATIVE  IN  EXCLAMATIONS. 

The  accusative  is  used  in  exclamations,  either  with  or  with- 
out an  interjection : 

As,  me  miserum  !  or,  0  me  miserum !  wretched  me ! 
The  accusative  is  used  as  it  would  have  been  if  some  verb  of  emotion  or 
declaration  had  preceded. 

GENITIVE. 
133.  ADNOMINAL  GENITIVE. 

A  noun  that  limits  the  meaning  of  another  noun,  denoting 
a  different  thing,  is  put  in  the  Genitive. 


ADNOMINAL    GENITIVE.  185 

Genitive  of  Possession. 

1.  The  noun  in  the  genitive  may  denote  the  possessor,  the 
author,  or  the  source  : 

As,  Caesaris  horti,  Caesar's  gardens;  Ciceronis  oratio,  an  oration  of 
Cicero ;  labor  discendi,  the  toil  of  learning. 

Note  1. — The  noun  limited  is  sometimes  omitted :  as,  ventum  erat  ad 
Vestae,  sc.  templum ;  we  had  come  to  the  temple  of  Vesta  (compare,  he 
went  to  St.  Paul's) ;  hujus  video  Burriam,  I  see  this  man's  slave,  Burria; 
Verania  PTsonis,  Piso's  wife,  Verania. 

Note  2. — a.  The  possessive  adjective  pronouns  are  used  to  denote  the 
possessor,  instead  of  the  genitive  of  the  personal  pronouns :  as,  domus  mea, 


b.  The  genitive  of  pronouns  or  participles  may  be  added  to  such  posses- 
sive pronouns,  agreeing  with  the  genitive  which  they  imply:   as,  mea 
imTus  opera,  by  my  single  exertion;  nostros  vidisti  flentis  ocellos,  you 
saw  the  eyes  of  me  weeping. 

c.  In  connection  with  omnium,  the  genitives  nostrum  and  vestrum  are 
used:  as,  communis  omnium  nostrum  parens,  the  common  parent  of  us 
all.    But  nostrum  and  vestrum  are  ordinarily  used  after  partitives. 

Note  3. — Alienus  is  often  used  instead  of  the  genitive  of  alius,  and  other 
possessive  adjectives  instead  of  the  genitive  of  the  nouns  from  which  they 
are  derived :  as,  alienus  puer,  the  child  of  another ;  Hectoreum  oaput, 
Hector's  head  ;  erllis  f  Tlius,  the  master's  son.  See  also  $  116,  10. 

Subjective  Genitive. 

2.  The  noun  in  the  genitive  may  denote  the  subject  of  the 
action  or  feeling  denoted  by  the  governing  noun :  as,  amor 
parentum,  parents',  love,  meaning  the  love  which  parents  feel  for 
their  children. 

Objective  Genitive. 

3.  The  noun  in  the  genitive  may  denote  the  object  of  the 
action  or  feeling  denoted  by  the  governing  noun :  as,  amor 
parentum,  the  love  of  parents,  meaning  the  love  which  children 
feel  for  their  parents. 

Note  1.— The  objective  genitive  is  often  translated  by  other  prepositions 
than  of:  as,  fuga  perlculi,  flight  from  danger ;  contentio  honorum,  the 
struggle  for  office;  Boiorum  triumphus,  a  triumph  over  the  Boii;  fiducia 
virium,  confidence  in  strength. 
16* 


186  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

Note  2. — Both  genitives  may  limit  the  same  noun :  as,  Agamemnonis 
gloria  belli,  Agamemnon's  (subject)  glory  in  war  (object). 

Note  3. — The  possessive  adjective  pronouns,  though  generally  subjective, 
may  be  used  objectively  or  passively :  as,  neglegentia  tua,  disregard  for 
you;  odium  tuum,  hatred  for  you. 

Genitive  after  Partitives. 

4.  Words  denoting  a  part  are  followed  by  a  genitive  denot- 
ing the  whole : 
As,  juvenum  princeps,  foremost  of  the  youth. 

Note  1. — Words  denoting  a  part  are  called  partitives.     They  are, 

a.  Nouns  which  express  partition  :  as,  pars,  numerus,  nemo,  nihil ; 

b.  Some  adverbs  of  quantity,  measure,  place,  or  time :  as,  partim,  parum, 
satis,  affatim,  nimis,  abunde ;   eo,  hue,  adhuc,  quo,  quoad;  hie,  hue, 
nusquam,  ibi,  ubi ;  interea ; 

c.  Pronouns  and  pronominals,  as  Me,  ille,  is;  qui,  quis,  and  their  com- 
pounds ;  tot,  quot,  and  their  derivatives ;  alias,  alter,  liter,  and  its  com- 
pounds, ullus,  nullus,  plerique,  multi,  pauci,  reliqui,  ceteri,  solas ; 

d.  Cardinal  and  ordinal  numerals ;  also  princeps  and  medius ; 

e.  Neuter  adjectives  and  pronouns  used  as  nouns ; 

/.  Adjectives  in  the  comparative  and  superlative ;  as,  major  Neronnm, 
the  elder  of  the  Neros ;  avium  loquaciores,  the  noisier  sort  of  bird*;  ma- 
ximus  fratrum,  the  elder  of  the  brothers ; 

g.  Adverbs  in  the  superlative ; 

h.  Any  noun  or  adjective  which  can  imply  distribution :  as,  piscium 
f  eminae  ;  lecti  juvenum. 

Note  2.— The  genitive  of  the  thing  measured  or  counted  is  used  after 
words  of  measure  or  quantity :  as,  vlni  tres  amphorae ;  tria  millia  equi- 
tum ;  magna  vis  argenti. 

Note  3. — The  genitive  of  the  whole  is  sometimes  the  predicate  :  as,  fies 
nobilium  tu  quoque  fontium,  thou  also  shah  become  one  of  the  fountains 
of  fame.  An  object  partitive,  also,  is  sometimes  omitted. 

Note  4.— After  numerals,  where  all  are  embraced,  the  genitive  is  not 
used  in  Latin  :  as,  nos  duo  sumus,  there  are  two  of  us ;  cognati  quos  pau- 
cos  habeo,  kinsmen  of  whom  I  have  few.  In  such  cases  of  is  generally  used 
in  English ;  but  compare  "  we  are  seven." 

Note  5.— Instead  of  the  genitive,  the  prepositions  ex,  de,  in,  or  inter 
are  sometimes  used :  as,  melior  ex  duobus ;  aliquis  de  heredibus ;  sapi- 
entissimus  in  septem.  Unas  is  generally  construed  with  ex  or  de  and  the 
ablative. 

Note  6. — The  genitive  of  the  whole  after  neuter  adjectives  or  pronouns 
or  nihil,  is  often  an  adjective  of  the  second  declension,  standing  as  a  noun : 
as,  aliquid  pulchri ;  nihil  boni.  Adjectives  of  the  third  declension  are 


GENITIVE   OF  QUALITY.  187 

not  used  in  this  way  (unless  rarely  in  connection  with  adjectives  of  the 
second),  many  of  them  having  the  same  form  in  the  genitive  as  in  the 
nominative  masculine  and  feminine. 

Note  7.— The  poets  and  later  prose-writers  use  frequently  the  neuter 
plural  of  adjectives  and  participles  with  a  denning  genitive :  as,  strata 
viarum  =  stratae  viae. 

Genitive  of  Definition. 

5.  The  genitive  of  definition  generally  corresponds  to  an 
appositive  in  English : 

As,  Buthroti  urbs,  the  city  of  Buthrdtum ;  virtus  justitiae,  the  virtue  of 
justice;  arbor  fici,  the  fig-tree;  spretae  injuria  formae,  the  injury  of 
slighting  her  beauty. 

Genitive  of  Material. 

6.  The  genitive  may  denote  the  substance  or  material:  as,  flumina 
lactis,  rivers  of  milk.    But  seeming  cases  of  this  kind  may  often  be 
referred  to  other  rules.    The  material  is  more  frequently  denoted  by  an 
adjective,  or  by  an  ablative  (generally  with  ex)  after  a  verb  or  participle. 

Genitive  after  Prepositional  Nouns,  etc. 

7.  The  nouns  causa  and  gratia,  for  the  sake  of,  also  ergo  (in  old 
writers)  on  account  of,  and  ins  tar,  as  large  as,  like,  old  nouns  used  like 
prepositions  or  adverbially,  govern  the  genitive:  as,  hominum  causa,  for 
the  sake  of  mankind;  virtutis  ergo,  on  account  of  manliness ;  Plato  solus 
instar  omnium  est,  Plato  alone  is  equal  to  them  all;  instar  mentis  equus, 
a  horse  like  a  mountain. 

1.  Pridie,  the  day  before;  postrldie,  the  day  after;  tenus  (with  the 
plural),  as  far  as,  and  clam,  without  the  knowledge  of,  may  govern  the 
genitive. 

134.    GENITIVE  OF  QUALITY  OR  DESCRIPTION. 

Nouns  indicating  a  quality,  or  .describing  the  limited  noun, 
are  put  in  the  genitive,  with  an  adjective  agreeing  with  them : 

As,  juvenis  mitis  ingenii,  a  youth  of  mild  disposition ;  puer  sedecim 
annorum,  a  boy  of  sixteen;  non  multi  cibi  hospitem  accipies,  sed  multi 
joci,  you  will  receive  a  guest  who  is  not  a  great  eater  but  a  great  joker. 

Note  1. — The  descriptive  noun  and  adjective  are  more  frequently  in  the 
ablative.  The  genitive  seems  to  be  preferred  to  describe  the  general  nature 
and  kind  of  the  subject,  or  permanent  qualities ;  the  ablative  to  denote  par- 
ticular or  transient  qualities  and  circumstances :  securi  animi  es,  you  are 
free  from  anxiety  always  ;  bono  animo  sum,  I  am  of  good  cheer  in  the  present 


188  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

circumstances.  But  there  are  many  exceptions  to  this  rule.  The  requisites 
for  a  thing,  and  all  ideas  of  measure  are  expressed  by  the  genitive :  as, 
res  magni  laboris ;  fossa  centum  pedum ;  parts  of  the  body  by  the  abla- 
tive :  as,  qua  facie  fait  1  magiio  capite,  ore  rubicundo. 

Note  2.— Ejus  modi,  cujus  modi,  and  the  like,  are  genitives  of  quality, 
in  meaning  equivalent  to  tales,  quales. 

135.    GENITIVE  AS  A   PREDICATE. 

The  genitive  in  the  predicate  after  sum  denotes  property, 
characteristic,  part,  lot,  office,  or  duty  : 

As,  omnia  hostium  erant,  all  things  belonged  to  the  enemy ;  cujusvis 
hominis  est  errare,  it  is  the  lot  of  every  man  to  err ;  hoc  est  praeceptoris, 
this  is  the  business  of  the  teacher ;  moris  est  Graecorum,  it  belongs  to  the 
custom  of  the  Greeks  (or  simply,  it  is  the  custom,  etc.) ;  stultitiae  est,  it  is 
a  mark  of  folly. 

1.  The  genitive  of  property  or  possession  may  be  used  in  the  pre- 
dicate with  flo:  as,  omnia  quae  mulieris  fuerunt,  viri  fiunt,  dotis 
nomine. 

2.  The  genitives  lucri,  compendi,  and  dicionis  are  found  in  the  predicate 
after  facio  or  flo. 

136.    OBJECTIVE  GENITIVE  AFTER  ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives  are  followed  by  a  genitive  denoting  the  object 
to  which  the  quality  they  express  is  directed. 

1.  Adjectives  in  ax  formed  from  transitive  verbs-,  and  present  participles 
used  adjectively,  govern  the  genitive :  as,  tenaz  propositi,  tenacious  of 
purpose  ;  veritatis  dlligens,  fond  of  the  truth  ;  amantior  domini. 

2.  Adjectives  govern  the  genitive  which  signify  desire,  knowledge,  care, 
memory,  mastery,  participation,  fulness,  guilt,  and  their  contraries: 
as,  avidus  gloriae,  eager  for  glory;  belli  perltus,  skilled  in  war;  ignara 
mali,  unacquainted  with  evil ;  provida  utilitatum,  providing  for  advan- 
tages; memor  virtutis,  mindful  of  virtue;  impotens  sui,  without  self- 
control;  ratiouis  particeps,  sharing  in  reason;  plenus  rimarum,/W/  of 
chinks ;  inops  humanitatis,  destitute  of  culture;  rei  capitalis  reus,  guilty 
of  a  capital  crime. 

3.  Many  of  these  adjectives  are  found  sometimes  in  a  different  construc- 
tion ;  as  with  the  ablative,  with  or  without  a  preposition  ;  with  the  accu- 
sative, especially  with  ad  or  in ;  with  the  dative  ;  and  with  an  infinitive 
or  subjunctive  clause :  as,  rudis  injure  cTvili ;  arte  rudis ;  ad  rem  avidior ; 
potens  in  res  bellicas ;  cuncta  pollens ;  facinori  mens  conscia ;  certus 
Ire ;  memor  quam  sis  aevi  brevis. 


GENITIVE  AFTER    VERBS.  189 

4.  The  genitive  after  an  adjective  or  participle  sometimes  denotes  a 
cause  or  source,  especially  in  the  poets :  as,  fessus  viae,  weary  of  the  way ; 
notus  in  fratres  animi  paterni,  well-known  for  his  father-like  affection 
for  his  brothers. 

5.  The  genitive  of  the  respect  in  which  is  used  freely  by  the  poets :  as, 
integer  vltae  scelerisque  purus,  upright  in  life  and  free  of  crime. 

6.  The  genitive  animi  as  the  seat  of  feeling,  after  adjectives  and  verbs, 
is  strictly  locative :  as,  aeger  animi,  sick  at  heart. 

7.  The  genitive  can  sometimes  be  explained  by  the  adjective's  standing  for 
a  noun.    For  the  genitive  after  similis,  dissimilis,  etc.,  see  §  162,  4. 

137.    GENITIVE  AFTER    VERBS. 

1.  Memini  and  reminiscor,  /  remember,  and  obliviscor,  / 

forget,  take  an  objective  genitive : 

As,  vivorum  memini,  nee  tamen  Epicuri  licet  oblivisci,  I  remember 
the  living,  and  yet  I  am  not  allowed  to  forget  Epicurus. 

2.  Recorder,  I  bethink  myself  of,  takes  the  genitive  rarely  in  the  best 
writers,  more  frequently  in  later  Latin.  It  is  generally  found  with  the 
accusative,  sometimes  with  the  ablative  (of  persons)  with  de. 

9 

Exc. — Verbs  of  remembering  and  forgetting  often  take  an  accusative, 
when  they  denote  to  have  a  thing  in  the  memory,  or  the  reverse :  as,  Anti- 
patrum  STdonium  tu  probe  meministi,  you  remember  well  Antipater  of 
Sulon. 

Note.— The  phrase  venit  mihi  in  mentem  may  be  construed  imperson- 
ally with  a  genitive :  as,  venit  mihi  in  mentem  Platonis,  Plato  occurs  to 
me.  It  is  also  used  personally. 

138.  Misereor  and  miseresco,  I  pity,  take  an  objective  geni- 
tive :  as,  miserere  sororis,  pity  thy  sister. 

139.   ACCUSATIVE  AND   GENITIVE. 

1.  Verbs  of  reminding  take  an  accusative  of  the  person  and 
a  genitive  of  the  thing : 

As,  Catillna  admonebat  alium  egestatis  alium  cupiditatis  suae,  Cati- 
line kept  putting  one  in  mind  of  his  poverty,  another  of  his  desire. 

Note.— Instead  of  the  genitive  of  the  thing,  admoneo  may  take  the  ac- 
cusative of  a  pronoun  or  neuter  adjective,  or  the  ablative  with  de. 

2.  Miseret,  paenitet,  piget,  pudet,  taedet,  and  pertae- 
sum  est  take  an  accusative  of  the  person  who  feels  and  a 
genitive  of  the  cause  or  respect : 

As,  me  stultitiae  meae  pudet,  /  am  ashamed  of  my  folly. 


190  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

140.  Verbs  of  accusing,  condemning,  and  acquitting,  take  an 
accusative  of  the  person  and  a  genitive  of  the  crime : 

As,  accusare  aliquem  furti,  to  charge  one  with  theft;  majestatis  absol- 
vuntur,  they  get  acquitted  of  treason ;  damnari  repetundarum,  to  be  con- 
demned of  extortion. 

1.  The  crime  is  sometimes  in  the  ablative  with  de ;  or  crimine,  nomine, 
or  judicio,  with  the  genitive  may  be  used. 

2.  With  damno  and  condemno,  the  punishment  is  put  in 
the  genitive  or  ablative : 

As,  damnari  capitis  or  capite. 

For  a  definite  penalty,  if  money  or  land,  the  ablative  is 
always  used : 

As,  damnari  decem  millibus ;  damnari  tertia  parte  agri ;  and  so  always 
with  the  verb  multo. 

Note.— Damnari  ad  bestias  means  to  be  condemned  to  be  thrown  to  the 
wild  beasts;  in  metalla,  to  the  mines;  voti  damnari,  to  be  bound  to  fulfil 
a  vow;  hence  voti  damnatus  or  voti  reus  means  successful. 

141.  Impleo,  repleo,  and  compleo,  and  sometimes  in  the  poets  expleo, 
verbs  signifying  to  fill,  may  take  in  addition  to  the  accusative  a  genitive, 
though  more  commonly  an  ablative. 

142.    GENITIVE  AFTER  REFERT  AND  INTEREST. 

1.  Refert  and  interest  may  take  the  genitive  of  the  person 
to  whom  anything  is  of  interest  or  importance : 

As,  intererat  Clodii  Milonem  perlre,  it  was  important  for  Clodius  that 
Milo  should  die, 

2.  Instead  of  the  genitive  of  the  personal  pronouns,  the  pos- 
sessives  mea,  tua,  sua,  nostra,  vestra,  are  used. 

3.  The  thing  of  interest  or  importance  may  be  expressed  by 
a  neuter  pronoun,  but  is  usually  denoted  by  an  accusative 
with  an  infinitive,  or  by  ut  or  the  interrogative  particles 
with  a  subjunctive : 

As,  hoc  mea  interest ;  multum  mea  interest  te  esse  dtligentem,  or  ut 
dlligens  sis,  or  (utrum )  dlligens  sis  necne. 

4.  The  accusative  with  ad  is  used  to  denote  the  end  for  which  the 
matter  is  important:  as,  magni  ad  honorem  nostrum  interest,  quam  prl- 
mum  ad  urbem  me  venire,  it  is  of  great  importance  for  my  honor  that  I 
should  come  to  the  city  as  soon  as  possible. 


SYNTAX  OF  THE  GENITIVE.  191 

143,   SPECIAL    USES  OF  THE  GENITIVE. 

Egeo  sometimes,  and  indigeo  frequently,  take  the  genitive  ; 
but  verbs  of  wanting  commonly  take  the  ablative. 

Note. — Both  the  genitive  and  ablative  after  such  verbs  are  cases  of 
specification  of  the  respect  in  which. 

144.  Satago  (sat  ago)  takes  a  genitive  denning  the  indeclinable  adjective 
sat. 

145.  Poets,  and  later  prose  writers,  sometimes  use  a  genitive 
of  definition  or  respect  after  many  verbs  regularly  construed 
with  other  cases : 

As,  regnavit  populorum ;  sepositi  ciceris  invidit ;  decipitur  laborum. 

1.  The  poetical  genitive  sometimes  denotes  cause :  as,  sunt  lacrimae 
rerum,  there  are  tears  for  human  fortune ;  justitiae  aliquem  mirari,  to 
admire  one  for  his  justice;  felicem  cerebri,  happy  in  your  hot  temper. 

2.  The  genitive  after  verbs  of  separation  is  similar  to  the  genitive  in 
Greek :  as,  abstineto  irarum  ;  desine  querelarum. 

3.  Potior,  both  in  the  sense  of  to  make  oneself  master  of  and  to  be  master 
of,  is  often  found  with  the  genitive.    Plautus  sometimes  uses  potior  with 
the  genitive  in  the  sense  of  fall  into  the  hands  of. 

146.   GENITIVE  OF  VALU& 
Sum  and  verbs  of  valuing  take  the  genitive  of  the  degree 
of  estimation : 

As,  divitias  minoris  aestimare  debemus  quam  virtutem,  we  ought  to 
set  a  lower  value  on  riches  than  on  virtue ;  parvi  sunt  foris  arma ;  ager 
nunc  pluris  est  quam  tune  fuit ;  tanti  est,  it  is  worth  while. 

1.— a.  Such  genitives  are  magni,  pluris,  plurimi,  maximi,  parvi,  mino- 
ris, minimi,  tanti,  quanti,  nihili.  So  also  flocci,  nauci,  pensi,  pili,  assis, 
terunci,  hujus  :  as,  non  hujus  faoio,  I  don't  care  THAT  for  it. 

b.  Such  verbs  are  puto,  duco,  aestimo,  existimo,  pendo,  facio,  flo, 
habeo,  taxo  ;  and  sum,  in  the  sense  of  being  of  a  value. 

c.  Aestimo  may  take  either  the  genitive  or  ablative. 

2.  The  genitives  boni,  aequi  boni,  aequi  bonlque,  with  facio,  and  boni, 
optimi,  with  consulo,  may  be  classed  with  genitives  of  value. 

147,    GENITIVE  OR  ABLATIVE  WITH  VERBS  OF  BUY- 
ING AND  SELLING. 

\.  Verbs  of  buying  and  selling  take  the  genitives  tanti, 
quanti,  pluris,  maximi,  and  minoris : 


192  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

As,  quanti  oryza  empta  1  parvo ;  for  how  much  was  the  rice  bought  f 
At  a  small  price. 

2.  So  with  the  genitives  tantidem,  qnantivis,  quanticunque. 

3.  But  such  verbs  take  the  ablatives  magno,  pennagno, 
plurimo,  parvo,  minimo,  nihilo,  nonnihilo,  tantulo. 

148.    LOCATIVE  OF  NAMES  OF  TOWNS,  ETC. 

1.  Names  of  toivns  and  small  islands  in  which  anything  is 
said  to  be  or  be  done,  if  of  the  first  or  second  declension  and 
singular  number,  are  put  in  the  genitive;   if  of  the  plural 
number  or  third  declension,  they  are  put  in  the  ablative : 

As,  Corinthi  pueros  docebat,  he  used  to  teach  boys  at  Corinth;  Smyrnae, 
at  Smyrna;  Carthagine,  at  Carthage;  Athenis,  at  Athens;  Trallibus,  at 
Tralles. 

Note. — These  constructions  owe  their  origin  to  the  old  locative  termi- 
nation i.  The  genitive  of  the  first  declension  once  ended  in  i,  as  Bomai ; 
that  of  the  second  has  the  locative  termination.  Even  in  the  third  declen- 
sion forms  in  i  are  often  preferred  for  the  locative ;  as,  Carthagini,  at  Car- 
thage. For  other  expressions  of  the  place  where,  see  §  183. 
* 

2.  Domi,  at  home;  belli,  at  war;  militiae,  on  military  ser- 
vice ;  humi,  on  the  ground,  are  locative  genitives. 

3.  Other  locatives  are  vlclniae  (Plautus  and  Terence),  in  the  neigh- 
borhood; and  animi  (plural  animis),  in  mind,  especially  in  certain  ex- 
pressions of  doubt  or  anxiety.    (Compare  §  136,  6.) 

149.    DATIVE. 

The  dative  denotes  the  person  or  thing,  to  or  for  which 
anything  is  or  is  done.  It  marks  the  person  affected  or  in- 
terested, and  generally  implies  advantage  or  disadvantage. 

1.  As  denoting  that  with,  reference  to  which  the  subject  acts,  or  in 
reference  to  which  it  possesses  a  quality,  it  is  called  the  case  of  the  remoter 
object. 

2.  The  dative  of  advantage  is  often  called  the  datlvns  commodi. 

3.  There  are  some  uses  of  to  and  for  in  English,  which  cannot  be  ex- 
pressed by  the  dative,  but  require  a  preposition ;  thus  to,  after  words  of 
actual  motion,  is  often  to  be  translated  by  ad  or  in ;  and  for,  meaning  in 
behalf  of  or  in  defence  of,  by  pro. 


DATIVE  AFTER    VERBS.  193 

150.   ACCUSATIVE  AND  DATIVE. 

Transitive  verbs  govern  the  accusative  and  dative  when, 
together  with  the  object  of  the  action,  there  is  expressed  the 
person  or  thing  to  or  for  which,  or  with  reference  to  which,  it  is 
done: 

As,  dedi  puero  librum,  I  gave  the  boy  a  book  ;  trado  provinciam  succes- 
sor!; morem  tibi  gero  ;  nullum  locum  reliquit  precibus. 

1.  This  dative  stands  also  with  the  passive  :  as,  liber  puero  datus  est, 
the  book  was  given  to  the  boy. 

151.  Many  verbs  of  taking  away,  defending,  and  protecting 
from,  most  of  which  are  compounds  of  ab,  de,  or  ex,  are  found 
often  with  the  accusative  and  dative  : 

As,  solstitium  pecori  defend!  te,  ward  off  the  heat  from  the  flock;  elabor 
fratri  ;  Caesar  Ambiorigi  auxilia  detraxif,  oestrum  aroebis  peoori. 

Note.  —  The  dative  in  these  cases  is  one  of  advantage  or  disadvantage. 
The  ablative,  with  or  without  a  preposition,  is  more  frequently  found  in 
prose.  But  while  the  ablative  marks  simply  separation,  the  dative  inti- 
mates that  the  person  or  thing  is  harmed  or  benefited.  There  is  a  delicate 
elegance  in  this  use  of  the  dative,  which  makes  it  a  favorite  construction 
in  the  poets.  A  similar  use  of  the  dative  is  seen  in  German  writers. 

152.  ACCUSATIVE  AND    DATIVE    OR   ACCUSATIVE 
AND  ABLATIVE. 

Some  verbs  have  two  constructions,  taking  sometimes  an  object-accusative 
and  the  dative  of  the  person  or  thing  affected,  and  sometimes  the  accusa- 
tive of  the  thing  affected  and  the  ablative  of  the  means  :  as,  urbi  circum- 
dedit  murum  (literally,  he  put  a  wall  around,  for  the  city),  or  urbem 
circumdedit  muro,  he  surrounded  the  city  with  a  wall;  dono  tibi  munus, 
or  dono  te  munere.  So  also  adspergo,  induo,  exuo,  impertio,  iiiuro, 
misceo,  circumfundo,  and  other  verbs. 

153.   DATIVE  AFTER  VERBS. 

Many  intransitive  verbs,  such  as  those  which  denote  benefit- 
ing, injuring,  pleasing,  and  others,  take  a  dative  of  the  person 
or  thing  affected  : 

As,  Fortuna  favet  fortibus,  Fortune  favors  the  brave;  nemini  noceas, 
harm  no  man;  mini  placebat  Pomponius,  Pomponius  was  pleasing  to  me  ; 
mundus  deo  paret,  the  world  pays  obedience  to  God;  sibi  fldit,  he  trusts 
himself;  Trasoitur  inimlcis,  he  is  angry  with  his  enemies;  omnibus  bonis 

17  N 


OF 

TTNTVERSITY 


194  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

expedit  salvam  esse  rempublicam,  it  is  for  the  advantage  of  all  good  men 
that  the  Commonwealth  should  be  safe. 

\.  The  principal  verbs  of  this  kind  are,  a.  prosum,  auxilior,  admini- 
culor ,  opitulor,  patrocinor,  subvenio,  succurro,  medeor ;  noceo,  obsum, 
desum,  officio.  incommodo,  insulto,  insidior;  placeo,  arndeo,  displiceo; 
faveo,  gratificor,  indulgeo,  ignosco,  studeo,  pareo,  adulor,  blandior, 
lenocinor,  palpor,  assentior,  assentor,  respondeo ;  adversor,  refragor, 
obsto,  renltor,  repugno,  resisto,  invideo,  aemulor,  obtrecto,  convicior, 
maledico;  impero  (also  transitive),  pareo,  cedo,  ausculto,  obedio,  obsequor, 
obtempero,  morigeror  (morem  gero),  alicui  dicto  audiens  sum,  servio, 
inservio,  ministro,  famulor,  ancillor,  praestolor ;  credo  (also  transitive), 
fido,  confldo,  diffido;  immineo,  propinquo,  appropinquo,  impendeo, 
occnrro;  minor,  comminor  (both  also  transitive),  Trascor,  stomacbor, 
succenseo. 

b.  Also  the  impersonals,  conducit,  contingit,  convenit,  expedit,  dolet, 
libet,  licet. 

2. — a.  Some  verbs  of  this  kind  are  rendered  in  English  by  transitive 
verbs ;  but  a  strictly  exact  translation,  in  accordance  with  their  etymology, 
would  show  that  they  are  intransitive.  Thus  suadere,  to  persuade,  is  lit- 
erally to  be  sweet  to;  nubere,  to  marry  (said  of  the  female),  means  to  put 
on  the  veil  for. 

b.  Some  verbs  are  transitive  in  Latin,  while  from  their  English  transla- 
tion they  would  appear  to  belong  to  this  class ;  as,  delecto,  juvo,  adjuvo, 
adjuto.  laedo,  offendo,  jubeo,  and  others. 

3.  Intransitive  verbs  governing  a  dative  are  often  used  impersonally  in 
the  passive  with  the  same  case :  as,  mibi  invidetur,  I  am  envied ;  mihi 
nunquam  persuader!  potuit,  /  never  could  be  persuaded.    We  cannot  say 
invideor,  persuadeor,  etc. 

4.  Some  of  the  verbs  which,  as  intransitive,  govern  a  dative,  may  become 
stronger  and  take  an  accusative;  or  they  may  take  a  preposition  and  its 
case,  or  a  dependent  clause.     The  classical  writers  themselves,  and  the 
lexicons,  will  furnish  examples. 

5.  The  poetic  dative  of  the  place  whither  is  a  bold  extension  of  the 
dative  of  influence :  as,  it  clamor  caelo,  a  shout  reaches  the  sky. 

6.  In  the  poets  and  the  later  prose  writers  the  dative  is  more  frequent 
than  in  the  best  classical  prose.    Haerere,  jungere,  miscere  are  among 
the  verbs  which  sometimes  take  a  dative  in  such  writers. 

7.  Certo,  decerto,  contendo,  and  luctor  are  often  used  by  the  poets  with 
the  dative. 

154.   DATIVE  AFTER    VERBS  COMPOUNDED    WITH 
PREPOSITIONS,  ETC. 

Many  verbs  compounded  with  the  prepositions  ad,  ante, 
con,  in,  inter,  ob,  post,  prae,  sub,  and  super,  take  the  dative : 


SYNTAX  OF  THE  DATIVE.  195 

As,  omnibus  antestare,  to  surpass  all;  interfuit  pugnae,  he  was  engaged 
in  the  battle;  miseris  succurrere  disco,  I  learn  to  aid  the  wretched. 

1.  Transitive  verbs  take  also  an  accusative.     (See  §  150.) 

2.  If  a  local  relation  is  clearly  designed,  the  preposition  is  commonly 
repeated  with  its  proper  case :  as,  adhaeret  navis  ad  scopulum ;  Ajax  incu- 
buit  in  gladium ;  incurrere  in  hostes. 

3.  The  compounds  of  cum  (con,  com)  usually  repeat  the  preposition,  but 
not  always. 

4.  Some  verbs  never  repeat  the  preposition  ;  with  some  a  different  prepo- 
sition is  used,  as  obrepere  in  animum.    The  facts  in  each  case  can  be 
learned  from  observation  of  the  usage  of  classical  writers,  and  by  consult- 
ing the  lexicons. 

155.  Verbs  compounded  with  satis,  bene,  and  male,  govern 
the  dative  :  as,  pulcrum  est  benefacere  reipublicae. 

156.   DATIVE  OF  THE  POSSESSOR. 

The  verb  esse,  to  be,  is  construed  with  a  dative  of  the  pos- 
sessor : 

As,  est  mini  liber,  /  have  a  book. 
This  is  a  form  of  the  dative  of  advantage  or  disadvantage. 

1. — a.  In  such  expressions  as  est  mihi  nomen  the  name  is 
generally  put  by  attraction  in  the  dative  : 

As,  est  mihi  nomen  Balbo,  my  name  is  JSalbus. 

6.  The  nominative,  however,  is  sometimes  found,  and,  more 
rarely,  the  genitive : 

As,  ei  morrbo  nomen  est  avaritia ;  Q.  Metello  Macedonici  nomen  indi- 
tum  est. 

2.  The  construction  of  a  dative  with  a  participle  agreeing  with  it,  after 
esse,  is  imitated  from  the  Greek  :  as,  quibus  bellum  volentibus  erat,  those 
who  toished  for  war  ;  mihi  volenti  est,  it  is  agreeable  to  my  wish  (properly, 
is  related  to  me  as  wishing  it). 

157.  DATIVE  OF  THE  AGENT. 

1.  The  gerundive,  and  sometimes  passive  verbs,  take  a 
"dative  of  the  agent,"  as  the  person  to  whom  the  action 
relates  or  is  of  interest : 
As,  proelia  conjugibus  loquenda,  battles  for  wives  to  talk  about;  quid- 


196  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

quid  mihi  susceptum  est,  whatever  has  been  undertaken  by  me  (as  far  as  I 
am  concerned);  non  intellegor  ulli  (Ovid),  I  am  not  understood  by  any 
one  (I  do  not  make  myself  intelligible  to  any  one). 

Note. — In  good  prose,  the  dative  of  the  agent  with  passive  verbs  is  rare, 
and  seldom  found  except  with  the  compound  tenses. 

2.  When  the  verb  itself  governs  the  dative,  the  gerundive  may  take  the 
ablative  with  ab :  as,  oivibus  est  a  vobis  consulendum ;  but  two  datives 
are  sometimes  found,  where  no  ambiguity  arises  from  their  use. 

3.  Verbal  adjectives  in  -bilis  take  a  dative :  as,  multis  flebilis,  bewailed 
by  many  (literally,  to  many  an  object  of  lamentation). 

158.  DATIVE  LIMITING   THE  WHOLE  PREDICATE. 

A  whole  proposition  is  sometimes  qualified  by  a  dative, 
where  a  single  noun  might  have  been  qualified  by  a  genitive 
or  a  preposition : 

As,  is  finis  populationibus  fuit,  that  was  the  end  for  the  raiding 
parties;  puero  dormienti  caput  arsisse  ferunt. 

1.  English  idiom  often  compels  us  to  translate  this  dative  as  a  genitive: 
as,  sese  omnes  flentes  Caesari  ad  pedes  projecerunt,  they  all  threw  them- 
selves weeping  at  Caesar's  feet. 

2.  The  dative  sometimes  specifies  the  relation  in  which  one  person  stands 
to  another :  as,  M'  Manilio  consul!  tribunus,  tribune  under  Manius  Mani- 
lius  ;  hires  est  fratri  suo,  he  is  heir  to  his  brother. 

3.  Facio  and  f  To,  with  the  accusatives  quid  and  idem,  take  the  dative 
of  the  person  or  thing  affected :  as,  quid  facies  huic,  what  will  you  do  with 
this  manf  quid  mihi  futurum  est,  what  will  become  of  me  f    But  de  with 
the  ablative,  and  the  ablative  alone,  are  also  used. 

4.  The  dative  of  a  participle  is  occasionally  used  to  denote 
time  or  circumstances : 

As,  sita  Anticyra  est  laeva  parte  sinum  intrantibus,  Anticyra  lies  on 
the  left  as  you  sail  in  (lit.  to  those  sailing  in) ;  in  universum  aestimanti, 
plus  penes  peditem  roboris,  looking  at  it  on  the  whole,  their  chief  strength 
is  in  the  infantry  (lit.  to  one  looking  at  it). 

159.  ETHICAL  DATIVE. 

A  slight  reference  to  a  person,  as  interested  in  the  matter  in 
hand,  is  sometimes  made  by  the  dative  of  a  personal  pronoun  : 

As,  quid  mihi  Celsus  agit  1  how  is  my  Celsus  f  Haec  vobis  illorum  per 
biduum  militia  fuit,  this,  you  see,  was  their  two-days'  campaigning.  Hem 
Davum  tibi,  see,  here 's  Davus.  A  similar  construction  is  found  in  Shake- 
speare ;  and  in  French  and  German  writers. 


SYNTAX  OF  THE  DATIVE.  197 

160,   DATIVE  OR  ACCUSATIVE  AFTER    VERBS. 

1.  Some  verbs  may  take  an  objective  accusative,  or  a  dative 
of  interest,  with  a  different  meaning  : 

As,  metuo  aliquem,  I  fear  some  one ;  metuo  alicui,  /  am  anxious  for 
someone;  caveo  aliquem,  lam  on  my  guard  against  some  one;  caveo 
alicui,  Hook  out  for  some  one's  interests. 

Such  verbs  are  metuo,  timeo,  caveo,  consulo,  prospicio,  provideo, 
moderor,  tempero. 

2.  A  few  verbs  take  either  the  accusative  or  dative  without  marked  dif- 
ference in  signification :  as,  adulor,  aemulor,  comitor,  despero,  praestolor. 

161.    TWO  DATIVES. 

1.  Esse  and  certain  other  verbs  sometimes  take  two  datives, 
one  of  the  person  or  thing  affected,  the  other  of  the  end  served 
or  the  result : 

As,  cui  bono  fuit  ?  whom  did  itjbenefit  ?  exitio  est  mare  nautis,  the  sea 
brings  destruction  to  sailors. 

2.  Besides  esse,  the  verbs  most  frequent  in  this  construction  are  habere, 
ducere,  dare,  vertere :  as,  Q.  Metello  laudi  datum  est. 

3.  Some  other  verbs,  especially  verbs  of  motion,  are  so  construed  with 
auxilio,  praesidio,  subsidio:  as,  equitatum  auxilio  Caesari  miserant; 
quinque  cohortes  castris  praesidio  relinquit. 

4.  Sometimes  the  dative  of  the  person  or  thing  affected  is  not  expressed : 
as,  omuia  deerant  quae  ad  reficiendas  naves  eraut  usui. 

162.   DATIVE  AFTER  ADJECTIVES. 

1.  Adjectives  which  in  English  take  TO  or  FOR  after  them, 
are  generally  followed  by  the  dative : 

As,  civis  utilis  reipublicae,  a  citizen  useful  to  the  state;  res  tibi  facilis, 
ceteris  difficilis,  a  thing  easy  for  thee,  hard  for  the  others. 

2.  Such  are  adjectives  denoting  advantage  or  disadvantage,  ease  or  diffi- 
culty, friendliness  or  unfriendliness,  similarity,  nearness,  and  the  like. 

3.  Some  such  adjectives  are  frequently  used  as  nouns,  with  the  genitive : 
as,  amicus,  aequalis,  affinis,  alienus,  proprius,  sacer,  superstes,  etc. 

4.  Similis,  consimilis,  adsimilis,  and  dissimilis,  are  put  both  with  the 
genitive  and  the  dative;  in  the  earlier  writers,  almost  always  with  the 
genitive  of  the  names  of  gods  and  men. 

5.  Aptus,  habilis,  idoneus,  accommodatus,  instead  of  the  dative,  have 

17* 


198  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

often  ad  with  the  accusative.  Adjectives  meaning  friendly  or  hostile, 
sometimes  take  the  prepositions  in,  erga,  or  adversus,  instead  of  the  dative. 
Alienus  may  take  the  ablative,  with  or  without  ab. 

6.  Propior  and  proximus  have  generally  the  dative,  but  sometimes  the 
accusative,  or  the  ablative  with  ab.    The  adverb  propius,  proximo,  takes 
the  accusative,  more  rarely  the  dative. 

7.  The  poets  sometimes  use  the  dative  after  idem  (in  any  case  but  the 
nominative),  instead  of  atque  with  the  nominative :  as,  idem  facit  occidenti, 
he  does  the  same  as  he  who  kills  him. 

163.   DATIVE  AFTER  PARTICLES  AND  NOUNS. 

The  dative  is  used  with  the  adverbs  convenienter,  congruenter,  con- 
stanter,  obsequenter,  obviam,  utiliter,  and  the  interjections  hei  and  vae. 

164.  Verbal  nouns  govern  the  dative  in  a  few  instances  :  as,  obtemperatio 

legibus ;  re  media  morbis. 

ABLATIVE. 

165.  The  ablative  is  the  case  of  separation  or  departure, 
and  source.     It  also  serves  as  an  instrumental  and  a  loca- 
tive case,  under  the  latter  head  including  respect,  manner, 
condition,  and  quality,  as  well  as  time  and  place. 

166,  ABLA  TIVE  OF  GA  USE,  MANNER,  AND  INSTR  UMENT. 

The  ablative  after  verbs,  participles,  or  adjectives  may 
denote  the  cause,  manner,  means,  or  instrument : 

As,  ardere  studio,  to  burn  with  zeal;  ratione  voluptatem  sequi,  to  fol- 
low pleasure  in  a  rational  manner ;  moribus  conciliandus  amor,  love  must 
be  won  by  character;  cornibus  tauri  se  tutantur,  bulls  defend  themselves 
with  their  horns ;  Britanni  lacte  et  carne  vivebant,  the  Britons  lived  on 
milk  and  flesh;  naturam  expellere  furca,  to  drive  nature  out  with  a  pitch- 
fork. 

1.  The  ablative  of  manner  is  regularly  accompanied  by  an  adjective,  a 
pronoun,  or  a  participle,  or  by  the  preposition  cum ;  but  a  few  words,  such 
as  modus,  mos,  ratio,  ritus,  and  consuetude  are  used  in  the  ablative  without 
this  accompaniment. 

2.  The  ablative  of  manner  denotes  the  way  in  which  or  the  circum- 
stances under  which  a  thing  is  done. 

3.  Even  with  an  adjective,  the  preposition  cum  is  sometimes  used,  par- 
ticularizing the  concomitant  :  as,  magno  cum  studio  aderat,  i.  e.,  he  was 
present,  and  displayed  great  zeal. 

4.  The  ablative  may  denote  that  in  accordance  with  which  anything  is 


SYNTAX  OF  THE  ABLATIVE.  199 

or  is  done  :  as,  meo  judicio,  in  my  opinion ;  institute  suo,  in  accordance 
with  his  practice. 

5.  Accompaniment  is  generally  denoted  by  the  preposition  cum:  as, 
vagamur  cum  conjugibus  et  liberis,  we  wander  with  our  wivex  and 
children.    But  in  words  denoting  military  and  naval  forces,  we  generally 
have  the  ablative  of  instrument,  without  a  preposition,  when  an  adjective 
is  used :  as,  ad  castra  omnibus  copiis  contenderunt. 

6.  Junctus,  conjunctus,  implicatus,  admixtus,  may  take  the  ablative. 

167.  ABLATIVE  WITH  CERTAIN  VERBS,  ETC. 

Utor,  abutor,  fruor,  fungor,  potior,  and  vescor  take  the 
ablative : 

As,  quousque  tandem,  Catillna,  abutere  patientia  nostra?  officio, 
munere,  honoribus  fungi ;  carne  vescor ;  oppido  potitur. 

1.  These  are  ablatives  of  means  or  instrument  or  of  source. 

2.  In  older  Latin  the  accusative  is  sometimes  found  with  these  verbs. 
Hence  they  retain  the  gerundive :  as,  vita  data  est  utenda ;  spes  potiun- 
dorum  castrorum.    Potior  often  takes  the  genitive. 

3.  The  idiomatic  uses  of  utor  deserve  notice :  as,  valetudine  utor  non 
bona,  7  have  poor  health  ;  utebatur  intime  Hortensio,  he  was  on  intimate 
terms  with  Hortensius ;  usus  eram  silentio,  I  had  kept  silence  ;  fortuna  uti, 
to  try  one's  fortune  ;  facili  me  utetur  patre,  he  shall  find  in  me  an  indul- 
gent father. 

168.  The  verbs  laetor,  exsulto,  gaudeo ;  delector,  glorior ;  laboro,  doleo  ; 
valeo,  floreo;  excello,  praesto,  supero ;   fido,  confido,  nltor;  and  the 
adjectives  laetus,  contentus,  praeditus,  fretus,  take  an  ablative  of  cause 
or  means.    Dignor  takes  an  ablative  of  respect  or  price. 

169.  The  ablative  is  put  with  various  verbs  to  denote  that  with  which 
the  action  is  performed,  or  to  specify  in  what  it  is  manifested  :  as,  culter 
manat  cruore,  the  knife  is  dripping  with  blood  ;  pluit  lapidibus  ;  sanguine 
sudare;  augere  aliquem  scientia;  afficere  aliquem  honore,  ignominia, 
etc. ;  aliquem  puro  sermone  adsuefacere ;  homines  labore  adsueti. 

1.  These  may  be  regarded  as  free  exemplifications  of  the  ablatives  of 
means  or  instrument  and  specification. 

2.  Transitive  verbs  meaning  to  fill,  to  furnish  with,  and  some  others, 
govern  the  accusative  and  ablative. 

170.  Verbs  of  fulness  and  want  take  the  ablative :  as,  Germania  abun- 
dat  fluminibus ;  caret  oculis.    (But  see  §  143.) 

171.    OPUS  AND   USUS. 

Opus  est,  used  impersonally,  takes  the  dative  of  the  person  needing,  and 
the  ablative  of  the  thing  needed ;  it  can  also  be  construed  personally :  as, 
duce  nobis  opus  est,  we  have  need  of  a  leader ;  or  dux  nobis  opus  est. 


200  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

1.  Usus  est,  there  w  occasion,  with  the  ablative,  is  sometimes  found :  as, 
nunc  vlribus  us  us. 

2.  Opus  est  can  be  followed  by  an  infinitive,  or  an  aco.  with  the  infin. 

172.   ABLATIVE  OF  THE  MATERIAL. 

Verbs  and  participles  signifying  consisting  or  being  made  of,  take  the 
ablative :  as,  agri  constant  campis,  vTheis,  silvis,  (Plin.  Ep.).  But  prepo- 
sitions are  often  used ;  Cicero  always  has  ex  with  constare  in  this  sense. 

173.   VOLUNTARY  AGENT. 

1.  The  voluntary  agent  of  a  verb  in  the  passive  vojce  is 
put  in  the  ablative  with  a  or  ab : 

As,  mundus  a  deo  administrator. 

Note. — The  voluntary  agent  is  a  living  person ;  the  involuntary  agent 
is  properly  called  the  instrument,  and  is  put  in  the  ablative  without  a 
preposition :  as,  Hector  ab  Achille  caesus  est,  Hector  was  slain  by 
Achilles;  Hector  telo  caesus  est,  Hector  was  slain  by  a  spear. 

2.  Neuter  verbs,  also,  are  sometimes  followed  by  an  ablative 
of  the  voluntary  agent  with  a  or  ab  :  as,  periit  ab  Annibale, 
he  died  at  the  hands  of  Hannibal. 

3.  If  the  involuntary  agent  is  personified,  it  takes  the  preposition :  as, 
animus  ab  ignavia  corruptus.  ( 

4.  The  voluntary  agent  is  sometimes  found  in  thd  ablative  without  ab. 
In  such  cases,  the  idea  of  personality  is  thrown  in  the  background,  and  the 
agents  appear  as  the  mere  instruments  of  the  action  :  as,  servi  agrestes  ac 
barbari,  quibus  Etruriam  vexarat.  * 

174.   ABLATIVE  AFTER   COMPARATIVES. 

The  comparative  degree  is  followed  by  the  ablative,  when 
quam,  than,  is  omitted :  . 

As,  Tullus  HostTlius  ferocior  Romulo  fait ;  lacrimS  nib.il  citius  arescit. 

1.  After  plus,  minus,  amplius,  and  longius  (but  rarely  after  other  ad- 
verbs in  prose),  quam  is  often  omitted  without  influence  on  the  construction : 
as,  spatium  non  amplius  pedum  sexcentorum. 

2.  It  is  a  rare  license  to  put  the  ablative  after  the  comparative  when  the 
latter  stands  in  any  other  case  than  the  nominative  and  accusative:  as, 
pane  egeo.  jam  mellitis  potiore  placentis. 

3.  The  poets  use  this  ablative  of  distinction  also  with  alius :  as,  ne  putes 
alium  sapiente  bonoque  beatum. 


SYNTAX  OF  THE  ABLATIVE.  201 

4.  The  ablatives  aequo,  justo,  dicto,  solito,  spe,  oplnione,  necessario, 
follow  comparatives :  as,  Caesar  oplnione  omnium  celerius  venturus  est. 

5.  The  ablative  after  the  comparative  is  sometimes  omitted ; 
the  adjective  or  adverb  may  then  be  translated  with  quite, 
too,  rather : 

As,  liberius  vivibat,  he  lived  too  freely ;  res  graviores,  matters  of  un- 
usual importance.  (See  §  53,  1.) 

175.  ABLATIVE  OF  QUALITY. 

A  noun  and  an  adjective  are  put  in  the  ablative  of 
quality  ^"description : 

As,  Marina,  vir  mediocri  ingenio ;  or,  Marina  mediocri  ingenio  fait, 
Munena  was  a  man  of  moderate  ability.  (See  §  134,  Note  1.) 

176.  ABLATIVE  OF  THE  DEGREE  OF  DIFFERENCE. 

The  degree  of  difference  between  objects  compared  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  ablative : 

As,  sol  multis  partibas  major  atque  amplior  est  qaam  terra. 

The  ablatives  multo,  parvo,  quo,  quanto,  eo,  and  tanto  are  frequently 
used  to  denote  the  degree  of  difference :  as,  eo  gravior  dolor  quo  culpa 
major,  the  pain  is  heavier  in  proportion  as  the  fault  is  greater. 

177.  ABLATIVE  OF  SEPARATION. 

The  ablative  denotes  that  of  which  a  person  or  thing  is 
deprived,  or  from  which  it  is  separated : 

As,  spoliare  hominem  fortunis,  to  rob  a  man  of  his  fortunes :  arcire 
tyrannum  reditu,  to  bar  the  tyrant  from  return;  abstinire  scelere,  to  keep 
from  crime. 

1.  But  the  verbs  which  signify  to  abstain,  to  hinder,  to  exclude,  are  also 
used  with  ab :  as,  prohibire  hostem  a  pugna.  When  a  person  is  specified, 
the  preposition  is  always  used. 

2.  The  poets,  in  imitation  of  a  Greek  idiom,  have  the  genitive  with  a 
few  such  verbs :  as,  solutus  operum,  freed  from  work.  (See  §  145,  2.)  For 
the  dative,  see  §  151.    Compounds  with  dis-  take  the  dative  in  poetry. 

3.  Verbs  denoting  to  drive  a  person  or  thing  from  or  out 
of  the  place  where  it  is,  sometimes  take  the  ablative  alone,  but 
usually  with  ab,  ex,  or  de  : 

As,  dipellere  hostem  loco  or  e  loco. 


202  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

4.  Cedo  and  its  compounds  often  take  the  ablative  without  a  preposition ; 
so  also  abeo,  used  of  resigning  an  office. 

178.  ABLATIVE  OF  SOURCE. 

Perfect   participles   denoting   origin   are   followed  by  the 
ablative  of  the  source : 
As,  Mercurius  Jove  et  Maia  natus  erat ;  equestri  loco  ortus. 

1.  Such  participles  are  natus,  ortus,  genitas,  satus,  editus. 

2.  With  the  parents,  ex  and  de  are  also  used. 

3.  More  remote  ancestry  is  indicated  by  ortus  ab  :  as,  Belgae  orti  sunt  a 
Germanis ;  Cato  Uticensis  a  Censorio  ortus  erat. 

179.  ABLATIVE  OF  PRICE. 

The  price  or  value  is  put  in  the  ablative : 

As,  hunc  librum  parvo  pretio  emi ;  multorum  sanguine  et  vulneribus 
ea  victoria  Poenis  stetit;  asse  carum  est,  'it's  dear  at  a  penny. 

1.  To  this  rule  belong  the  ablatives  magno,  plurimo,  parvo,  minimo, 
nihilo,  with  verbs  of  buying  and  selling :  as,  hunc  librum  plurimo  emi. 
For  the  genitive  with  such  words,  see  $  147.    Bene,  male  are  also  used. 

2.  Dignus  and  indigrius  take  the  ablative  of  the  thing  of 
which  anything  is  worthy  or  unworthy  : 

As,  virtus  imitatione  digna  est ;    quam  multi  luce  indigni  sunt ! 

The  genitive  is  found  rarely. 

3.  Mutate,  commutare,  permutare,  and  vertere,  to  exchange,  take  either 
an  accusative  of  the  thing  parted  with,  and  an  ablative  of  the  thing 
taken  :   as,  mutare  pacem  bello,  to  exchange  peace  for  war,  i.  e.,  to  go  to 
war;  or,  especially  in  poetry,  an  accusative  of  the  thing  taken,  and  an 
ablative  of  the  thing  parted  with :  as,  permutare  otio  divitias,  to  take 
wealth  in  exchange  for  ease. 

4.  The  penalty  is  sometimes  in  the  ablative :  as,  capite  damnatus,  con- 
demned to  death  (to  lose  his  head). 

180.  ABLATIVE  OF  SPECIFICATION. 
An  ablative  may  be  joined  to  noujsor  adjectives  to  denote 


in  what  respect  their  signification  is  -taken : 

As,  nomine  grammaticus,  re  barbarus,  yi  name  mgrammarian,  in  fact 
a  barbarian;  claudus  altero  pede,  lame  o/(we/ao<pcaptus  oculis. 


SYNTAX  OF  THE  ABLATIVE.  203 

181.  ABLATIVE  AFTER  ADJECTIVES. 

Some  adjectives  denoting  abundance,  want,  or  exemption, 
take  the  ablative : 

As,  dives  agris ;  orbus  rebus  omnibus ;  liber  cura. 

1.  Some  adjectives  of  this  kind  take  a  genitive  or  the  preposition  ab. 

2.  The  word  macte   takes  the  ablative  of  the  thing  on  account  of 
which  a  man  is  pronounced  happy :  as,  macte  virtute.     (Originally,  an 
ablative  of  the  means  with  which  one  was  honored.) 

3.  The  ablative  after  many  adjectives  is  explained  by  the  general 
rules  given  in  preceding  sections. 

182.  ABLATIVE  OF  PLAGE   WHENCE. 

I.  The  ablative  of  place  whence,  if  a  town  or  small  island, 
or  domo,  rare,  humo,  is  used  without  a  preposition : 

As,  redlre  Athenis,  TIbure,  rure,  to  return  from  Athens,  Tibur,  or  the 
country. 

2.  But  the  prepositions  ab,  de,  ex,  are  sometimes  used. 

3.  The  ablative  of  place  whence  may  be  used  in  dating  letters:  as, 
dat.  iiii.  kal.  Junias  Thessalonica,  written  the  29th  of  May,  from  Thessa- 
lonlca ;  ego  unas  Capua  litteras  dedi,  I  have  written  once  from  Capua. 

4.  Native  place    is    sometimes  expressed  by  this    ablative:    as,   Gn. 
Magius  Cremona,  Gnaeus  Magius  of  Cremona.     More  usually  an  adjec- 
tive is  used,  as  Cremonensis;  sometimes  ab,  as  Turnus  Herdonius  ab 
Aricia. 

5.  The  name  of  the  tribe  is  added  in  the  ablative  to  that  of  a  Roman 
citizen,  in  inscriptions :  as,  Ser.  Sulpicius  Q.  F.  Lemonia  Kufus,  Servius 
Sulpicius  JRufus,  son  of  Quintus,  of  the  Lemonian  tribe. 

183.  ABLATIVE  OF  PLACE  WHERE. 

1.  The  ablative  of  place  where,  except  in  the  names  of 
towns  and  small  islands,  generally  takes  in : 

As,  in  portu  navigo,  /  am  sailing  in  the  harbor. 

2.  The  preposition  is  omitted  in  certain  phrases :  a.  loco,  multis  locis, 
pluribus  locis,  etc.;  hoc  libro,  alio  libro,  etc.;  terra,  mari;  dextra 
(parte),  on  the  right  hand;  laeva,  sinistra,  on  the  left  hand;  media  urbe, 
in  the  middle  of  the  city;  medio  aedium,  in  the  middle  of  the  house;  b. 
with  the  adjective  totus :  as,  tota  Asia,  throughout  Asia ;  c.  with  se 
tenere,  se  continere :  as,  Pompeius  se  oppido  tenet,  Pompeius  keeps  in  the 
town. 


204  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

3.  The  poets  omit  the  preposition  more  freely :  as,  silvisque  agrisque 
viisque  corpora  foeda  jacent,  in  forests  and  fields  and  roads  lie  revolting 
corpses. 

4.  But  many  apparent  ablatives  of  place  may  be  explained  as  ablatives 
of  means,  cause,  etc. 

5.  When  a  work  is  quoted,  in  is  used :  as,  in  Iliade  Homeri ;  but  when 
the  author  only  is  cited,  apud :  as,  apud  Homirnm,  in  Homer. 

6.  For  the  ablative  of  names  of  towns,  see  $  148. 

a.  Prepositions  are  much  used  (1)  with  names  of  towns :  as,  in  Epheso 
eat;  in  Ephesum  abii ;  has  litteras  a  Brundisio  dedi.    So  ad  (at  or  near) 
and  apud.    (2)  With  humus,  domus,  and  rus :  as,  in  domo  Periclis. 

b.  Usque  is  joined  with  names  of  places,  with  or  without  a  preposition : 
as,  ab  Aethiopia  usque,  as  far  as  from  ^Ethiopia  ;  usque  Ennam,  05  far  as 


184.  ABLATIVE  OF  ROUTE. 

The  road  by  which  is  denoted  by  the  ablative  without  a  preposition : 
as,  Tre  via  Sacra,  to  walk  on  the  Sacred  Road;  ingredi  urbem  porta  Es- 
quilina,  to  enter  the  city  by  the  Esquiline  gate;  tendimus  nine  recta 

Beneventum  (sc.  via). 

% 

185.  ABLATIVE  OF  TIME. 
The  ablative  denotes  time  when  and  time  within  which : 

As,  hieme,  in  winter ;  hora  quarta,  at  the  fourth  hour  (ten  o'clock) ; 
Kalendis  Januariis,  on  the  first  of  January;  biennio,  within  two  years; 
paucis  diebus,  within  a  few  days ;  tribus  horis  Aduatucam  venire  potestis. 

1.  Recurring  games,  meetings,  or  festivals,  in  the  ablative  may  denote 
the  time  when :  as,  comitiis,  at  the  elections;  gladiatoribus,  at  the  gladia- 
tors' show;  LTberalibus,  at  the  feast  of  Liber. 

2.  Rarer  idioms  are  sereno,  in  a  calm;  austro,  in  a  south  wind;  and 
the  like. 

3.  Interdiu,  noctu,  mane  (mani),  luci,  vesperi,  heri,  temper!,  prldie, 
postrldie,  quotldie,  crastini  die,  represent  old  locatives. 

4.  The  preposition  used  to  define  time  when  is  chiefly  de,  beginning 
from,  ere  the  close  of,  during :  as,  multa  de  nocte,  long  before  night  ended. 
In  is  sometimes  used  to  express  time  within  which ;  so  also  intra. 

5.  The  ablative  of  time  within  which  is  sometimes  emphatically  defined 
by  the  pronouns  hie  or  ille  :  as,  hoc  triennio,  within  the  next  (or  the  last) 
three  years;  the  tense  determining  whether  hie  refers  to  future  or  past 
time. 

6.  Post  is  also  used  in  answering  the  question  how  soon !  ante  in  telling 


ABLATIVE  ABSOLUTE.  205 

how  long  ago :  as,  panels  post  diebus,  paucos  post  dies,  or  post  paucos 
dies,  within  the  next  few  days;  paucis  ante  diebus,  pancos  ante  dies,  or 
ante  paucos  dies,  a  few  days  ago.  We  also  have  abhinc  with  the  accusa- 
tive or  ablative :  as,  abhinc  trienninm  (or  triennio)  hue  commigravit, 
she  came  here  three  years  ago. 

7.  /  saw  him  three  days  before  he  died  may  be  rendered  in  any  of  the 
following  ways :  vldi  enm  tribus  diebus  (or  triduo)  antequam  mortuus 
est;  v.  e.  tertio  die  antequam  m.  e. ;  v.  e.  ante  tres  dies  (or  ante  trlduum) 
quam  m.  e. ;  v.  e.  ante  tertium  diem  quam  m.  e. 

8.  He  died  six  years  after  I  saw  him  may  be  translated  in  any  of  the  follow- 
ing ways :  mortuus  est  sex  annis  (or  sexennio)  postquam  eum  videram; 
m.  e.  sexto  anno  postquam  e.  v. ;  m.  e.  sexto  anno  quam  e.  v. ;  m.  e.  post 
sex  annos  (or  post  sexennium)  quam  e.  v, ;  m.  e.  post  sextum  annum 
quam  e.  v. 

9.  Cum,  quo,  quibus  are  sometimes  used  for  postquam :  as,  blduo  quo  (or 
cum)  haec  gesta  sunt,  two  days  after  these  things  were  done. 

10.  The  ablative  may  denote  time  throughout  which ;  but  rarely,  except 
in  post-Augustan  writers  :  as,  maestitia  est  caruisse  anno  Circensibus 
uno. 

11.  PrTdie  quam  mortuus  est,  means  the  day  before  he  died  (ante  diem 
quam) ;  postrldie  quam  eum  vldi,  the  day  after  I  saw  him  (post  diem 
quam). 

186.  ABLATIVE  AFTER  PREPOSITIONS. 

The  prepositions  a,  ab,  or  abs,  absque,  clam,  coram,  cum, 
de,  e  or  ex,  palam,  prae,  pro,  sine,  and  terms,  govern  the 
ablative : 

As,  pecuniam  a  me  accepit,  he  received  the  money  from  me;  coram  po- 
pulo  dixit,  he  spoke  before  the  people;  prae  laetitia  lacrimae  prosiliunt 
mihi,  tears  start  into  my  eyes  for  joy. 

1.  Tenus  follows  its  case,  and  governs  the  ablative  singular  (rarely 
plural)  and  plural  genitive  (§  133,  7, 1) :  capulo  tenus  abdidit  ensem,  he 
buried  his  sword  to  the  hilt;  verbo  tenus,  as  far  as  words  go ;  quadam 
tenus,  a  certain  way,  to  a  certain  extent. 

2.  Clam  (and  clanculum)  are  found  in  comedy  with  the  accusative.  For 
in,  sub,  super,  and  subter  with  the  ablative,  see  £  131,  3,  4. 

187.  ABLATIVE  ABSOLUTE. 

1.  A  noun  and  a  participle  not  connected  with  the  main 
construction  of  the  sentence,  may  stand  by  themselves  in  the 
ablative.  This  is  called  the  ablative  absolute. 

As,  imperante  Augusto,  when  Augustus  was  emperor. 
18 


206  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

2.  As  the  verb  sum  has  no  present  participle,  two  nouns,  or 
a  noun  and  an  adjective,  may  stand  together  in  the  ablative 
absolute : 

As,  Camillo  duce,  with  Camillus  as  commander;  vivo  patre,  while  my 
father  is  (or  was)  alive. 

3.  The  ablative  absolute  may  express  any  accompaniment 
of  the  principal  action,  as  the  time,  a  condition,  a  concession,  a 
cause,  according  to  the  context. 

Thus,  te  invito  may  mean,  in  different  connections,  against  your  will, 
if  you  are  unwilling,  though  you  are  unwilling,  since  you  are  unwilling,  etc. 

4.  An  impersonal  participle  stands  sometimes  in  the  ablative  absolute : 
as,  llbato,  after  the  libation  was  offered;  mihi  errato,  nulla  venia;  recte 
facto,  exigua  laus  proponitur;  to  me,  if  I  blunder,  no  indulgence;  if  I 
succeed,  small  credit  is  offered. 

5.  A  few  participles,  like  audlto,  cognito,  comperto,  explorato,  despe- 
rate, intellecto,  nuntiato,  edicto,  permisso,  sometimes  stand  in  the  abla- 
tive absolute  with  a  clause  which  is  used  as  a  noun :  as,  Hannibal,  cognito 
insidias  sibi  parari,  fuga  salutem  qnaesivit.    The  place  of  such  a  parti- 
ciple is  sometimes  supplied  by  an  adjective. 

MOODS  AND  TENSES. 
THE   INDICATIVE   MOOD. 

188.  The  Indicative  is  the  mood  of  simple  assertion  (affirm- 
ative or  negative),  or  of  direct  question. 

1.  In  conditional  sentences,  in  which  it  is  stated  simply  that 
a  thing  is  (or  is  not)  in  case  another  thing  is  (or  is  not),  without 
stating  anything  in  regard  to  the  actual  truth  of  the  two  prop- 
ositions, the  Indicative  is  used  in  both  : 

As,  Si  Deus  mundum  creavit,  conservat  etiam,  if  God  made  the  world, 
he  preserves  it  as  well;  nisi  hoc  ita  est,  frustra  laboramus,  if  this  is  not 
so,  we  are  laboring  in  vain. 

2.  There  are  some  idiomatic  uses  of  the  Indicative  where  other  moods 
might  have  been  expected.    (See  g  196 ;  g  215,  3,  n.  3,  4,  3.) 

189.  THE  PRESENT  TENSE. 

1.  The  Present  may  denote  (1)  a  momentary  or  (2)  a  con- 
tinued present  action : 

As,  (1)  procumbit  humi  bos,  the  bull  falls  prostrate  on  the  ground;  (2) 
navigat  aequor,  he  is  sailing  on  the  sea. 


THE  PRESENT  AND  IMPERFECT  TENSES,          207 

2.  The  Present  may  denote  an  action  or  state  as  existing  (1) 
occasionally,  (2)  habitually,  or  (3)  in  all  time : 

As,  (1)  domesticus  otior,  I  lounge  at  home;  (2)  honor  alit  artes,  honor 
nurtures  the  arts  ;  (3)  deus  mundum  conservat,  God  preserves  the  universe. 

3.  The  Present  may  express  the  opinion  or  statement  of  an  author,  cited 
as  still  living  in  his  books : 

As,  praeclare  hunc  locum  Cicero  tractat  in  libris  de  natura  deorum. 

4.  The  Present  is  sometimes  a  lively  substitute  for  the  Future. 

As,  ni  propere  fit  quod  impero,  vincirT  vos  jam  jubeo,  if  what  I  com- 
mand is  not  done  with  speed,  I  order  you  to  be  put  in  chains  this  moment ; 
Tmusne  sessum,  shall  we  go  and  sit  down?  abeo  an  maneo,  shall  I  go  or 
stay? 

5.  As  a  tense  of  incomplete  action,  the  present  sometimes  denotes  a 
thing  as  simply  attempted,  or  as  simply  begun.    In  these  uses  it  is  called 
the  conative  or  the  inceptive  present. 

6.  1.  The  Historic  Present  is  used  for  a  past  tense,  in  ani- 
mated and  picturesque  narrative : 

As,  dlmisso  senatu,  decemviri  prodeunt  in  concionem  abdicantque  se 
magistral tu,  when  thje  senate  broke  up,  the  decemvirs  go  forth  to  the  assem- 
bled people  and  resign  office. 

2.  The  Present  is  commonly  used  in  a  temporal  clause  with  dum,  while, 
even  when  the  principal  sentence  is  past  or  future :  as,  dum  haec  in  collo- 
quio  geruntur,  Caesari  nuntiatum  est  equites  Ariovisti  propius  accedere. 
But  the  Perfect  may  also  be  used,  of  an  action,  or  the  Pluperfect,  of  a  state 
of  things. 

7.  The  Present,  with  jam,  jamdiu,  jamdudum,  and  jampridem,  is  used 
of  that  which  has  lasted  for  some  time  and  still  continues :  as,  annum  jam 
audis  Cratippum,  you  have  now  for  a  year  been  attending  the  lectures  of 
Cratippus;  jamdudum  video,  I  have  seen  it  this  long  time. 

190.  IMPERFECT. 

1.  The  Imperfect  denotes  continued  past  action : 

As,  scrTbebam,  I  was  writing;  Tbam  via  Sacra,  accurrit  quidam,  I  was 
walking  on  the  Sacred  Road,  when  a  certain  man  ran  up  to  me. 

2.  The  Imperfect  denotes  repeated  or  habitual  past  action : 

As,  scrTbebam,  I  used  to  write;  dicebat  melius  quam  scrips!  t  Horten- 
sius,  Hortensius  used  to  speak  better  than  he  has  written ;  noctes  vigila- 
bat  ad  ipsum  mane,  diem  totum  stertebat,  he  would  lie  awake  whole  nights 
till  daybreak,  and  snore  all  day  long. 


208  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

3.  The  Imperfect  denotes  action  in  past  time,  intended,  at- 
tempted, or  begun,  but  not  completed  : 

As,  Aeneas  lenTbat  dictis  animum,  Aenea*  was  trying  to  soften  her 
mind  with  his  words;  num  dubitas  id  me  imperante  facere,  quod  jam 
tua  sponte  faciebas,  do  you  hesitate  to  do  at  my  command  what  you  were 
already  on  the  point  of  doing  voluntarily  f  Hujus  deditionis  ipse,  qui 
dedebatur,  suasor  et  auctor  fuit,  of  this  surrender  the  very  man  who  was 
to  be  surrendered  was  the  mover  and  adviser. 

4.  The  Imperfect  is  sometimes  translated  in  English  by  a  simple  preterite. 

5.  The  Imperfect  sometimes  expresses  a  fact  which  is  just  now  recognized 
by  the  speaker  or  writer,  having  been  previously  overlooked :  as,  quanta 
laborabas  charybdi,  in  what  a  whirlpool  you  are  struggling,  and  I  did  not 
know  it ! 

191.  FUTURE. 

1.  The  Future  expresses  continued  and  indefinite  action  in 
future  time : 

As,  ambulabo,  I  shall  be  walking;  ut  voles  me  ease,  ita  ero,  I  will  be  as 
you  shall  wish  me  to  be. 

2.  The  Future  is  often  used  as  a  polite  imperative :  as,  quod  superest, 
puerum  Ciceronem  curabis  et  amabis,  for  the  rest,  please  to  treat  young 
Cicero  with  care  and  affection. 

3.  The  Future  is  used  in  subordinate  sentences,  qualifying  a  principal 
future  sentence,  and  referring  to  the  same  time.    In  English  the  Present  is 
generally  found :  as,  hoc,  dum  erimus  in  terris,  erit  ill!  caelesti  vitae 
simile. 

192.  PERFECT  AND  AORI8T. 

1.  The  Perfect  expresses  an  action  finished  in  present  time: 
As,  dixi,  I  have  spoken;  venit  summa  dies,  the  last  day  is  come. 

2.  The  Perfect  may  express : 

a.  In  poetry,  the  rapid  completion  of  an  action :  as,  terra  tremit,  fugere 
ferae,  the  earth  trembles,  beasts  have  fled;  peril !  1  'm  undone. 

b.  Cessation  of  existence:  as,  fuimus  Troes,  fuit  Ilium,  we  Trojans 
have  been,  Ilium  has  been,  i.  e.,  we  are  no  longer  Trojans,  Ilium  is  no  more. 

c.  Repeated  action,  or  a  general  habit,  like  the  gnomic  perfect  and 
gnomic  aorist  in  Greek :  as,  cum  Fortuna  reflavit,  adfligimur,  when 
Fortune  blows  adverse,  we  are  cast  down  ;  rege  amisso,  rupere  fidem  con- 
structaque  mella  diripuere,  if  the  queen  bee  i-s  lost,  they  break  faith  and 
pull  down  their  honey  stores. 

d.  Lively  anticipation,  for  the  Future  Perfect :  as,  Brutus  si  conserva- 
tus  erit,  vicimus,  if  Brutus  shall  be  saved,  we  have  wan  the  day. 


PLUPERFECT  AND  FUTURE  PERFECT.  209 

193.  The  Historical  Perfect,  or  Aorist,  expresses  a  simple 
past  action : 

As,  veni,  vldi,  vici,  I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered. 

1.  In  historical  narration  the  conjunctions  postquam,  posteaquam,  ubi, 
ubi  primum,  cum  prlmum,  simul,  simul  ac,  simul  atque,  simul  ut, 
meaning  as  soon  as,  generally  take  the  Historical  Perfect  (sometimes  the 
Present),  although  our  idiom  prefers  the  Pluperfect. 

194.  PLUPERFECT. 

The  Pluperfect  expresses  an  action  finished  in  past  time: 
As,  postquam  lux  certior  erat,  et  Romani,  qui  caedibus  superfuerant,  in 
arcem  confugerant,  conticescebatque  tumultus,  turn  Tarentmos  convocari 
jubet,  when  the  light  became  stronger,  and  the  Romans,  who  had  survived 
the  massacre,  had  escaped  into  the  citadel,  and  the  uproar  was  getting  quiet, 
he  then  orders  the  Tarentines  to  be  convoked. 

195.  FUTURE  PERFECT. 

1.  The  Future  Perfect  denotes  an  action  to  be  finished  in 
future  time : 

As,  qui  Antoninm  oppresserit,  is  bellum  confecerit,  he,  who  shall  have 
crushed  Antonius,  will  have  finished  the  war. 

Note. — The  Latin  is  more  precise  and  accurate  than  the  English  in  its 
use  both  of  the  Future  and  the  Future  Perfect. 

2.  The  Future  Perfect  is  often  used  in  connection  with  the  Future  tense : 
as,  ut  sementem  feceris,  ita  metes,  as  you  shall  have  sown,  so  will  you 
reap. 

Bern.— English  idiom  often  uses  the  Present,  or  the  simple  Future,  for 
the  Future  Perfect :  as  you  sow,  or,  as  you  shall  sow}  instead  of  as  you  shall 
have  sown. 

3.  Especially  in  the  comic  poets,  the  Future  Perfect  is  often 
used  where  we  should  expect  the  .Future,  to  express  the  imme- 
diate sequence  upon  the  future  action  to  which  it  is  related,  or 
the  certainty  of  the  event : 

As,  molestus  si  sum,  reddite  argentum ;  abiero ;  if  I  bother  you,  give 
back  the  money  and  Pit  be  off. 

4.  It  may  denote  the  future  result  of  an  action  now  past: 

As,  unus  homo  tantas  strages  impune  per  urbem  ediderit  1  shall  it  be 
with  impunity  that  a  single  man  has  made  such  heaps  of  slain  throughout 
the  city  f 

18*  O 


210  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

5.  The  Future  Perfect,  like  the  Future,  sometimes  resembles  the  Imper- 
ative :  as,  sitne  malum  dolor  necne,  Stoici  vlderint,  whether  pain  'is  an 
evil  or  not,  the  Stoics  will  have  to  see. 

196.    THE  INDICATIVE  AS  AN  AUXILIARY. 

Latin  writers  often  express  duty,  necessity,  propriety,  possi- 
bility, as  facts,  in  the  Indicative,  where  the  English  would 
have  the  Potential : 

As,  ntilius  fuit,  it  would  have  been  better. 

197.   PERIPHRASTIC  CONJUGATION. 

1.  In  the  Future  Periphrastic  Conjugation,  the  participle 
in  -urus  expresses 

a.  being  about  to;  meaning  to;  purposing;  being  on  the  point  of:  as, 
apes  evolaturae  sunt,  the  bee*  are  about  to  swarm;  ubi  rex  erat  mansurus, 
where  the  king  intended  to  stay. 

b.  being  likely  to  ;  being  sure  to ;  being  ready  to :  as,  haec  sine  doctrlna 
credituri  fuerunt,  this  they  were  sure  to  believe  if  they  had  not  been  taught 
(otherwise). 

c.  being  destined  to  (am  to,  are  to,  etc.) :  as,  si  veri  amlci  futuri  sumus, 
if  we  are  to  be  true  friends;  manet  mansurumque  est,  it  abides  and  is 
destined  to  abide. 

2.  Periphrastic  past  tenses  may  sometimes  be  idiomatically  translated  by 
would  hare  or  should  have:  as,  deditos  ultimis  cruciatibus  affecturi  fue- 
mnt, they  would  have  executed  them,  if  surrendered,  with  the  uttermost 
tortures. 

Note. — As  the  passive  has  no  participle  with  a  future  signification,  cer- 
tain periphrases  are  used  to  express  those  relations  of  time  which  in  the 
active  are  denoted  by  the  future  participle  with  sum :  e.  g.,  futurum  est 
(erat,  fait)  ut ;  fore  ut  or  futurum  esse  ut ;  in  eo  est  (erat,  fuit)  ut :  as, 
erat  in  eo,  ut  urbs  caperetur,  the  city  was  on  the  point  of  being  taken. 

198.   PASSIVE  PERIPHRASTIC  CONJUGATION. 

The  combination  of  the  gerundive  with  the  tenses  of  the  verb  esse  de- 
notes necessity  or  fitness.  (See  §  82,  2.) 

199.  PASSIVE  COMPOUND   TENSES. 

The  perfect  passive  participle  is  sometimes  used  with  fai,  fueram,  or 
fuero  to  form  the  perfect,  pluperfect,  or  future  perfect  passive  tenses.  But 
generally  the  participle  with  these  forms  of  sum  is  used  adjectively,  or  to 
denote  a  state  or  condition  rather  than  an  act.  (See  also  §  74,  Note  1.) 


THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD.  211 

200.    TENSES  IN  LETTERS. 

Writers  of  letters  sometimes  express  time  from  the  point  of 
view  of  the  receiver  of  the  letter,  to  whom  of  course  the  time 
of  writing  is  already  past.  Thus  the  Imperfect  (and  sometimes 
the  Perfect)  may  be  used  where  in  English  we  have  the  Pres- 
ent, and  the  Pluperfect  where  we  have  the  Perfect : 

As,  Ante  diem  viii.  Kal.  haec  ego  scribebam  hora  noctis  nona.  Mar- 
cellus  ita  stertebat  ut  ego  audlrem  ;  on  the  eighth  day  before  the  Kalends 
I  write  this  at  three  o'clock  in  the  morning.  Marcellus  is  snoring  so  loud 
that  I  hear  him.  PrTdie  Idus  Febr.  haec  scrips!  ante  lucem;  eo  die  apud 
Pomponium  in  ejus  nuptiis  eram  cena turns  ;  I  have  written  this  before  day- 
break on  the  day  before  the  Ides  ;  I  am  going  to  dine  with  Pomponius  to- 
day at  his  wedding.  Dederam  litteras  Ephesi  pridie  ;  has  dedi  Trallibus  ; 
/  sent  a  letter  from  Ephesus  yesterday ;  I  send  this  letter  from  Tralles. 
Qnae  ad  earn  diem  cum  haec  scribebam  audlveramus,  inanis  rumor 
videbatur ;  what  we  have  heard  till  the  moment  I  write  this  seems  idle  rumor. 

1.  This  peculiarity  is  very  frequently  observed  not  at  all,  or  only  in  part. 

2.  Matters  which  will  remain  present  to  the  receiver  are  stated  in  the 
present :  as,  ego  hie  cogito  commorari,  quoad  me  reficiam,  I  think  of 
remaining  here  while  I  am  recruiting  my  health. 

3.  Expressions  of  time  are  often  accommodated  to  the  tense  employed, 
so  that  yesterday  becomes  pridie  ;  to-morrow,  postridie  or  postero  die. 

THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

201.  1.  The  Subjunctive  Mood  has  two  very  different  uses : 

1.  It  denotes  contingency,  possibility,  will,  desire,  or 
purpose,  and  is  generally  to  be  translated  in  English  by  the 
auxiliaries  may,  might,  can,  could,  would,  or  should. 

II.  It  is  used  in  consecutive  clauses  to  denote  result,  or  in 
subordinate  or  dependent  clauses,  simply  to  show  their 
subordination  or  dependence ;  and  is  then  generally  to  be  trans- 
lated in  English  by  the  Indicative. 

Note.— The  first  use  represents  the  original  force  of  the  mood ;  the  second 
has  been  derived  from  it,  through  steps  more  or  less  traceable.  But  the 
second  use  has  become  so  characteristic  that  it  has  given  the  mood  its 
ordinary  name.  Another  name,  Conjunctive,  is  preferred  by  many  gram- 
marians. 

2.  As  contrasted  with  the  Indicative,  the  Subjunctive  is  the 


212  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

mood  of  ideal  relations,  and  often  represents  a  thing  as  thought 
or  supposed,  rather  than  as  done  or  narrated. 

202.   POTENTIAL  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

1.  The  subjunctive  sometimes  represents  an  action  as  possi- 
ble or  probable : 

As,  quaerat  quispiam,  some  one  may  ask;  forsitan  quaeratis,  perhaps 
you  may  inquire;  vix  crediderim,  /  can  hardly  believe;  forsitan  quis- 
piam dlxerit,  some  one  may  perchance  say. 

2.  The  subjunctive  is  often  used  for  mild,  modest,  or  cau- 
tious statement,  in  preference  to  the  more  direct  and  positive 
indicative : 

As,  hoc  sine  ulla  dubitatione  confirmaverim,  I  might  affirm  this  without 
any  hesitation. 

Note.— Velim,  nolim,  malim  are  often  thus  used  to  express  a  wish 
modestly,  /  could  wish,  could  wish  not,  would  rather.  A  wish  which  can- 
not now  be  fulfilled  is  expressed  by  vellem,  nollem,  mallem. 

203,    OPTATIVE  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

1.  The  subjunctive  is  used  to  denote  a  wish  or  an  exhortation  : 

As,  sis  felix,  may  you  be  happy;  valeant  cives  mei,  sint  incolumes, 
sint  beati,  may  my  fellow  citizens  be  strong,  may  they  be  without  harm, 
may  they  be  happy  !  ne  vivam,  may  I  not  live;  imitemur  majores  nostros, 
let  us  emulate  our  ancestors!  moriar,  si  puto,  may  I  die,  if  I  think. 

Note.— The  negative  particle  with  the  optative  subjunctive  is  ne  (neve, 
neu),  rarely  non. 

2.  Utinam,  would  that,  I  wish  that,  and  utinam  ne  (some- 
times  non),  would  that  not,  are  used  with  the  present  sub- 
junctive, and  rarely  the  perfect,  in  wishes  whose  fulfilment 
is  possible,  or  is  conceived  of  as  possible,  and  with  the  imper- 
fect and  pluperfect  in  wishes  whose  fulfilment  is  impossibk  : 

As,  utinam  conata  efficere  possim,  0  that  I  may  be  able  to  accomplish 
my  purposes  !  utinam  tarn  facile  vera  invenire  possem,  quam  falsa  con- 
vincere,  would  that  it  were  as  easy  for  me  to  discover  the  truth,  as  it  is  to 
refute  falsehood !  utinam  in  Ti.  Graccho  talis  mens  ad  rem  publicam 
bene  gerendam  fuisset,  quale  ingenium  ad  bene  dlcendum  fuit,  I  wish 
that  Tiberius  Gracchus  had  had  a  disposition  for  the  good  administration 
of  the  government,  similar  to  his  genius  for  good  oratory. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD.  213 

3.  In  the  same  manner  ut,  si,  and  O  si  are  sometimes  used  : 
As,  ut  te  omnes  dii  perduint,  I  hope  that  all  the  gods  will  destroy  you; 

0  si  praeteritos  referat  mihi  Juppiter  annos,  0  if  Jupiter  would  give  me 
back  my  bygone  years  ! 

4.  The  particle  is  sometimes  omitted  in  the  poets :  as,  tecum  ludere  sicut 
ipsa  possem,  O  that  I  could  sport  with  thee  like  her  ! 

5.  The  subjunctive,  in  the  third  person,  is  sometimes  used 
in  commands  and  prohibitions : 

As,  ant  bibat  aut  abeat,  let  him  either  drink  or  depart ;  puer  telum  ne 
habeat,  let  not  a  boy  have  a  weapon. 

6.  The  subjunctive,  in  the  second  person,  is  used  of  a  sub- 
ject that  is  only  assumed  ;  rarely  of  a  definite  person,  and  then 
mostly  in  the  poets  : 

As,  injurias  fortunae  defugiendo  relinquas,  you  must  escape  the  wrongs 
of  fortune  by  flight ;  si  sciens  fallo,  turn  me,  Juppiter  optime  maxime, 
pessimo  leto  afficias  (Liv.). 

7.  The  second  person  of  the  perfect  subjunctive  is  used  in  prohibitions  : 
as,  ne  transieris  Iberum. 

8.  In  the  imperfect  and  pluperfect,  the  advisory  or  imperative  subjunctive 
is  used  of  a  thing  which  ought  to  have  been  done,  as  distinguished  from 
what  was  actually  done:  as,  potius  dTceret,  he  should  rather  have  said; 
frumentum  ne  emisses,  you  should  not  have  bought  any  wheat. 

9.  The  want  of  a  first  person  in  the  imperative  is  supplied  by  the  sub- 
junctive. 

10.  An  exhortation  may  be  given  in  Latin  by  a  question  with  qnin:  as, 
quin  Tmus,  why  are  we  not  going  ? 

204.    CONCESSIVE  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

1.  Permission  and  concession  are  expressed  by  the  subjunctive : 
As,  fruatur  sane  hoc  solacio,  let  him  enjoy  forsooth  this  consolation; 

naturam  expellas  furca,  tamen  usque  recurret,  you  may  drive  nature  off 
with  a  pitchfork,  still  she'  II  be  all  the  time  running  back  ;  sit  fur,  granted 
that  he  be  a  thief ;  fuerit  aliis ;  tibi  quando  esse  coepit  1  suppose  he  has 
been  so  to  others ;  when  did  he  begin  to  be  so  to  you  ? 

2.  The  concessive  subjunctive  is  often  preceded  by  the  par- 
ticles quamvis,  ut,  and  ne,  or  by  licet: 

As,  homines,  quamvis  in  turbidis  rebus  sint,  tamen  interdum  animis 
relaxantur,  men,  allowing  that  they  are  in  circumstances  as  troubled  as  you 
please,  still  at  times  unbend ;  ut  desint  vires,  tamen  est  laudanda  voluntas, 
though  strength  be  wanting,  yet  praiseworthy  is  the  will ;  ne  sit  summum 


214  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

malum  dolor,  malum  certe  est,  granting  that  pain  is  not  the  greatest  evil, 
an  evil  it  certainly  i*. 

1.  Quamquam  is  used  mostly  with  the  indicative  in  the  best  authors,  but 
sometimes,  especially  in  the  poets  and  in  Livy  and  later  writers,  with  the 
subjunctive.    Quamvis  is  found  with  the  indicative  sometimes  in  Livy,  and 
often  in  later  writers  and  in  the  poets ;  in  the  same  writers  quantumvis  and 
quamlibet  are  found  with  the  subjunctive.  The  verb  licet  takes  the  present 
or  perfect  subjunctive.    Cum  when  meaning  although,  and  qui  meaning 
although  I  (thou,  he,  etc.),  take  the  subjunctive;  but  they  are  found  with 
the  indicative  usually  in  Plautus  and  Terence,  and  sometimes  in  the  clas- 
sical period. 

2.  The  compounds  of  si,  when  denoting  concession,  take  the  same  moods 
and  tenses  as  when  denoting  condition. 

205.    QUESTIONS  OF  DELIBERATION  OR  OF  APPEAL. 

1.  Questions  of  doubt  or  of  appeal  take  the  subjunctive  : 
As,  quid  faciam  ?  what  am  I  to  do  f  quid  facerem "?  what  was  I  to  do  f 

what  could  I  do  f  or  what  ought  I  to  have  done  f 

2.  The  hesitation  or  doubt  is  often  in  regard  to  what  may  with  the  greatest 
propriety  or  fitness  be  done. 

3.  Questions  with  the  subjunctive  are  sometimes  potential; 
and  they  often  imply  a  negative  answer. 

206.   SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  PURPOSE. 

The  subjunctive  is  used  to  denote  a  purpose,  after  ut,  quo, 
ne,  and  the  relative  qui : 

As,  Platonem  ferunt,  ut  Pythagoreos  cognosceret,  in  Italiam  venisse, 
they  say  that  Plato  came  to  Italy  in  order  that  he  might  become  acquainted 
with  the  Pythagoreans ;  Dionysius,  ne  tonsori  collum  committeret,  ton- 
dere  f  Tlias  suas  docuit,  Dionysius  taught  his  daughters  to  shave,  in  order 
that  he  might  not  entrust  hi$  neck  to  a  barber ;  medico  puto  aliquid  dan- 
dum,  quo  sit  studiosior,  /  think  the  physician  should  have  something 
given  to  him  that  he  may  be  more  zealous;  Cluslni  legates  Romam  qui 
auxilium  a  senatu  peterent  misere,  the  Cluslni  sent  ambassadors  to 
Rome  to  ask  aid  from  the  Senate. 

1.  Qui  (§  220)  in  such  clauses  is  equivalent  to  ut  is,  quo  to  ut  eo.    When 
quo  is  used  with  comparatives,  the  ablative  denotes  the  measure  (§  176). 

2.  Eelative  adverbs,  also,  may  be  followed  by  the  subjunctive  of  purpose. 

3.  TTt  ne  and  quo  ne  are  sometimes  used  with  clauses  of  negative  purpose. 

4.  Ne  is  used  m  clauses  denoting  the  purpose,  not  of  the  principal  action, 
but  of  the  mention  of  the  action :  as,  ne  dicam,  not  to  say;  ne  longior  sim, 
vale,  not  to  be  too  long,  good-bye. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD.  215 

5.  Ne  and  nedum  take  the  subjunctive  in  the  sense  of  much  less ;  the 
prevention  of  the  greater  event  being  rhetorically  regarded  as  the  purpose 
of  the  less  event :  as,  vix  in  tectis  frigus  vltatur ;  nedum  in  mari  sit 
facile  abesse  ab  injuria  temporis,  much  less  is  it  easy  on  the  sea,  lit.,  that 
it  should  not  be  easy. 

207.   SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  RESULT. 

Ut,  ut  non,  and  quin,  denoting  a  consequence  or  a  result, 
take  the  subjunctive : 

As,  Verres  Siciliam  ita  vexavit,  ut  restitui  in  antTquum  statum  nullo 
modo  possit,  Verres  so  harried  Sicily  that  it  could  in  no  way  be  restored  to 
its  ancient  condition  ;  mere  ilia  non  possint,  ut  haec  non  ooncidant,  those 
things  cannot  fall  without  these  things  falling  with  them;  nunquam  acoedo 
quin  abs  te  abeam  doctior,  /  never  come  near  you,  without  going  away 
more  learned. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  IN  SUBSTANTIVE  CLAUSES  USED  AS 
SUBJECTS,  OBJECTS,   OR  APPOSITIVES. 

208.  The  subjunctive  is  used  in  substantive  clauses  introduced 
by  ut,  that,  ut  non  and  quominus,  that  not,  which  are  the 
subjects  of  a  verb  : 

As,  accidit  ut  eo  tempore  in  urbe  essem,  (it)  happened  that  at  that  time  I 
was  in  the  city ;  per  me  stetit  quominus  hae  fierent  nuptiae,  (it)  was  owing 
to  me  that  this  marriage  did  not  take  place;  saepe  fit  ut  ii  qui  debeant 
non  respondeant  ad  tempus. 

Note. — Such  substantive  clauses  are  the  subjects  of  such  verbs  and 
phrases  as  fit,  futurum  est,  accidit,  contingit,  evenit,  usu  venit,  est  (it 
is  the  case  thai),  sequitur,  restat,  reliquum  est,  super  est,  proximum  est, 
extremum  est,  prope  est,  longe  abest,  tantum  abest. 

209.  The  subjunctive  is  used  in  substantive  clauses  intro- 
duced by  ut,  that,  ne  and  ut  ne,  that  not,  which  are  the  objects 
of  a  verb : 

As,  sol  efficit  ut  omnia  floreant,  the  sun  causes  that  all  things  should 
flourish;  vos  adepti  estis  ne  quern  clvem  metueretis,  you  have  obtained 
that  you  should  fear  no  citizen. 

Note. — Such  object  clauses  follow  verbs  signifying  to  effect,  bring  about, 
ask,  persuade,  advise,  exhort,  command,  wish,  strive,  and  the  like. 

1.  After  verbs  of  effecting,  bringing  about,  ut  non  is  also  used. 

2.  When  the  object  of  these  verbs  is  an  opinion  or  belief,  the  accusative 
with  the  infinitive  is  generally  used.    Fac,  suppose,  always  has  the  accu- 
sative with  the  infinitive. 


216  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

3.  Verbs  of  wishing,  willingness,  commanding,  and  their  opposites,  often 
take  after  them  an  accusative  with  the  infinitive  (§  242).  So  generally  jubeo. 

4.  Ut  is  sometimes  omitted :  as,  die  veniat ;  fac  cogites  qui  sis ;  sine 
te  exorem;  Caesar  Labieno  mandat,  Remos  adeat;  oppidanos  hortatur 
moenia  defendant. 

5.  Volo,  nolo,  malo,  sino,  take  the  subjunctive  in  short  and  unam- 
biguous expressions  generally  without  ut :  as,  quid  vis  faciam  ?  sine  te 
exorem;  volo  ut  mini  respondeas.    So  facio,  faxo  ferant  (Aen.  ix.  155), 
and  jubeo  in  poets  and  late  writers. 

210.  Verbs  signifying  to  hinder,  resist, prevent,  refuse,  avoid,  take  the 
subjunctive  with  ne :  as,  impedior  dolore  ne  plura  dlcam,  I  am  hindered 
from  saying  more;  Regulus  ne  sententiam  dlceret  recusavit,  refused  to 
give  his  vote. 

1.  Ne  is  often  omitted  after  cave ;  impedio  and  prohibeo  often,  and  caveo 
sometimes,  have  the  infinitive. 

2.  Quominus  with  the  subjunctive  may  be  used  after  verbs  and  phrases 
of  hindering,  or  verbs  implying  resistance  or  refusal  when  qualified  with 
a  negative. 

211.  Quin  with  the  subjunctive  is  used  after  verbs  and  phrases  of  resist- 
ing, detaining  from,  omitting,  delaying,  when  they  are  negatived  or  ques- 
tioned :  as,  vix  me  contineo,  quin  involem  in  eum ;  baud  multum  abfuit 
quin  Ismenias  interficeretur. 

1.  After  verbs  meaning  properly  to  hinder  and  forbid,  quominus  is 
regularly  used,  quin  very  seldom ;  after  those  meaning  to  omit,  only  quin. 

212.  The  subjunctive  with  ut,  etc.,  is  used  in  appositive  clauses :  as, 
damnatum  paenam  sequi  oportebat,  ut  igni  cremaretur,  it  was  necessary 
that  the  punishment  of  being  burnt  with  fire  should  follow  his  condemnation. 

213.   AFTER    VERBS  OF  FEARING. 

After  verbs  and  phrases  of  fearing,  ut  is  translated  by  tJiat 
not,  ne  by  that  : 

As,  timeo  ne  pereas,  I  fear  you  will  perish;  metui  ut  effugeres,  / 
feared  you  would  not  escape. 

1.  Pavidus  sum,  timor  est,  periculum  est,  are  examples  of  such  phrases. 
The  ut  is  the  oblique  interrogative  how. 

214.    TEMPORAL   CLAUSES. 

Adverbs  of  time  generally  take  the  indicative  when  they 
simply  denote  actual  time;  but  if  they  denote  also  cause,  or  pur- 
pose, or  introduce  general  statements,  they  take  the  subjunc- 
tive. 


MOODS    WITH  DUM,   PRIUSQUAM,    CUM,   ETC.      217 

1.  Dum,  donee,  and  quoad,  take  the  present  and  imper- 
fect subjunctive  of  an  action  expected  or  purposed : 

As,  exspecta  dum  Atticum  conveniam,  wait  till  I  meet  Atticus;  multa 
bello  passus,  dum  conderet  urbem,  much  did  he  suffer  in  war,  that  he 
might  found  a  city  (while  he  was  striving  to  found) ;  rex  quattuor  millia 
armatorum,  dum  recens  terror  esset,  Scotussam  misit,  while  the  terror 
should  be  (as  he  expected)  fresh  in  men's  minds. 

Note  1.— When  meaning  as  long  as,  these  adverbs  take  the  indicative, 
unless  a  design  is  also  expressed  ;  in  the  sense  of  until  they  take  the  in- 
dicative if  the  event  is  thought  of  as  really  happening :  as,  Ti.  Gracchus 
tamdiu  laudabitur,  dum  memoria  rerum  Romanarum  manebit;  donee 
rediit  Marcellus  silentium  fuit ;  haud  desinam  donee  perf  ecero ;  Milo  in 
senatu  fuit  eo  die  quoad  senatus  dlmissus  est. 

Note  2.— Dum,  while,  while  yet,  generally  takes  the  present  when  two 
things  are  described  as  occurring  simultaneously,  or  one  is  the  occasion  of 
the  other :  as,  Tityre,  dum  redeo— brevis  est  via— pasce  capellas,  lit.,  while 
lam  on  way  back,  feed  my  kids;  dum  obsequor  adulescentibus,  me  senem 
esse  oblltus  sum ;  dum  elephant!  trajiciuntur,  Hannibal  equites  ad  castra 
miserat.  So  also  where  waiting  is  spoken  of :  as,  tu  hie  nos,  dum  eximus, 
interea  opperibere,  till  we  come  out. 

Note  3.— Chiefly  in  Livy  and  later  historians,  as  Tacitus,  after  donee,  so 
long  as,  until,  the  subjunctive  is  sometimes  used  of  facts,  where  we  gen- 
erally have  the  indicative. 

2.  Priusquam  and  antequam  take  the  subjunctive  (1) 
when  the  occurrence,  or  prior  occurrence,  of  an  expected  or 
purposed  event  is  prevented,  or  (2)  when  the  principal  sentence 
is  negative  : 

As,  Komanus  prius  quam  fores  portarum  obicerentur,  velut  agmine 
uno  irrumpit ;  is  videlicet  antequam  veniat  in  Fontum,  litteras  ad  Cn. 
Pompeium  mittet ;  non  ante  datam  cingetis  moenibus  urbem  quam  vos 
dira  fames  .  .  .  ambesas  subigat  malis  consumere  mensas. 

1.  So  potius  quam,  citius  quam,  and  similar  expressions. 

2.  The  subjunctive  is  used  after  antequam  and  priusquam  in  general  or 
indefinite  statements :  as,  tempestas  minatur  antequam  surgat. 

3.  The  imperfect  and  pluperfect  subjunctive  are  sometimes  used  in  de- 
noting a  point  of  time,  or  an  action  which  has  really  taken  place :   as, 
paucis  ante  diebus  quam  Syracusae  caperentur,  Otacilius  in  Africam 
transmlsit.    This  is  analogous  to  the  use  of  cum  in  narration. 

4.  The  following  are  examples  of  the  indicative  of  actual  time :  neque 
prius  fugere  destiterunt  quam  ad  flumen  Rhenum  pervenerunt ;  ante  ferit 
amor  quam  cernimus  hostem.    (The  imperfect  is  rarely  used,  and  is  then 
picturesque ;  the  pluperfect  never.) 

19. 


218  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

5.  The  indicative  is  occasionally  found  even  when  the  occurrence  is  a 
thing  to  be  prevented. 

6.  The  present  indicative,  of  actions  strictly  future,  occurs:  as,  ante 
quam  de  accusatione  ipsa  dice,  de  accusatorum  spe  pauca  dicam. 

3.  Cum  (quom,  quum)  takes  the  subjunctive  when  it  means 
because,  since,  or  although : 

As,  quae  cum  ita  sint,  now  sitice  these  things  are  so;  cum  mllites  perT- 
culum  vererentur,  non  audebant  cum  hostibus  confligere,  because  the  sol- 
diers feared  danger,  etc. ;  Pylades  cum  sis,  dices  te  esse  Oresten  ?  when 
(i.  e.  although)  you  are  Pylades ,  will  you  say  that  you  are  Orestes  f 

1.  In  early  Latin,  the  indicative  is  more  common ;  and  it  is  found  some- 
times even  in  Cicero. 

2.  Cum  takes  the  subjunctive  when  it  makes  a  kind  of  comparison,  or 
denotes  a  contrast,  and  may  be  translated  while  on    the  other  hand, 
whereas. 

4.  Cum,  when,  takes  the  indicative  in  the  present,  futures, 
and  perfect : 

As,  cum  tacent,  clamant ;  sed  plura,  cum  ista  cognoro  ;  cum  Caesar  in 
Galliam  venit,  alterius  Gallorum  factionis  principes  erant  Aedui,  alterius 
Sequani. 

Note  1. — Cum  takes  the  perfect  indicative  (or  historical  present)  if  the 
action  is  conceived  as  a  point  of  time  coincident  with  the  main  action. 
(Fischer.) 

Note  2.— If  when  means  in  doing,  cum  takes  the  indicative :  as,  amice 
facis  quom  me  laudas,  in  praising  me. 

Note  3. — Cum  takes  the  indicative  when  itmeans/rowi  the  time  when,  since. 

5.  Cum,  when,  generally  takes  the  imperfect  and  pluper- 
fect subjunctive,  especially  when  the  time  is  also  the  cause 
or  occasion  of  the  action  stated  in  the  principal  sentence  : 

As,  cum  mllites  de  hostium  adventu  edocerentur,  continuo  summo 
pugnandi  ardore  flagraverunt ;  Alexander,  cum  interemisset  Clitum,  vix 
a  sese  manus  abstinuit. 

1.  Sometimes  the  only  reason  that  can  be  seen  for  this  subjunctive  after  cum 
temporal  is  the  secondary  or  subordinate  character  of  the  temporal  clause. 

2.  Especially  in  the  ante-classical  writers  and  Cicero,  cum  may  take  an 
imperfect  indicative,  if  there  is  an  imperfect  or  aorist  in  the  principal 
sentence. 

3.  The  imperfect,  whether  in  the  subjunctive  or  indicative,  is  used  if  the 
action  is  conceived  as  occupying  a  period  of  time  within  which  the  main 
action  took  place.  (Fischer.) 

4.  Cum  may  take  a  pluperfect  indicative,  when  a  demonstrative  marks 


CONDITIONAL   SENTENCES.  219 

the  point  of  time:  as,  turn  cum  in  Asia  res  magnas  permulti  amlserant, 
at  the  very  time  ivhen  many  persons  had  lost  great  properties  in  Asia. 

5.  Cum  meaning  as  often  as  takes  the  pluperfect  indicative  in  Cicero 
and  Caesar,  there  being  an  imperfect  in  the  principal  sentence.  Livy  and 
the  later  historians  use  the  subjunctive. 

215,    CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES. 

1.  In  conditional  sentences,  the  clause  containing  the  condi- 
tion is  called  the  pro'tasis,  and  that  containing  the  conclusion  is 
called  the  apodosis.     The  protasis  is  often  introduced  by  si,  if, 
nisi  or  si  non,  unless,  if  not. 

Note  1.— Nisi  denies  a  negative  supposition ;  si  non  supposes  a  negative : 
as,  nemo  fere  saltat  sobrius,  nisi  forte  insanit,  hardly  any  sober  person 
dances,  unless  perhaps  he  is  mad  (denying  the  supposition  that  he  is  not 
mad) ;  si  non  quaeret,  nullus  dlxeris,  if  he  shall  not  ask,  you  will  say 
nothing  (making  the  supposition  that  he  will  not  ask). 

Note  2.— The  compounds  of  si,  etsi,  etiamsi,  tametsi,  are  used  in  con- 
ditional clauses  with  the  same  moods  and  tenses  as  si  itself. 

2.  In  simple  conditions,  which  imply  nothing  about  the  truth 
or  falsity  of  the  supposition  made,  yet  in  form  are  stated  as 
facts,  the  indicative  is  often  found. 

The  apodosis,  or  following  clause,  is  usually  in  the  indicative  or  impera- 
tive, but  it  may  be  in  the  subjunctive  of  modest  assertion,  wish,  exhorta- 
tion, or  prohibition : 

As,  si  hoc  dlcis,  erras ;  parvi  sunt  foris  arma,  nisi  est  consilium  domi ; 
si  noles  sanus,  curres  hydropicus ;  baud  erravero,  si  a  Zenone  disputa- 
tionis  principium  duxero  ;  si  occldi,  recte  f  eci ;  sed  non  occidi ;  si  quid 
in  te  peccavi,  ignosce;  mlrer,  si  vana  vestra  auctoritas  est;  si  sciens 
fallo,  turn  me  pessimo  leto  afficias. 

Note  1. — The  combinations  of.  tense  may  be  as  various  as  the  logic  of 
language  allows. 

Note  2.— In  all  forms  of  conditional  sentences,  si  is  sometimes  omitted: 
as,  rlserit,  adrlde ;  dedisses  huic  animo  par  corpus,  fecisset  quod  optabat, 
had  you  given. 

3.  In  conditions  stated  merely  as  thought  of,  the  subjunctive, 
either  in  the  present  or  perfect,  is  used  both  in  the  protasis 
and  the  apodosis : 

As,  nee  possim,  si  velim,  nee  velim  fortasse,  si  possim ;  si  exsistat  ho- 
die  ab  inferis  Lycurgus,  gaudeat  murorum  Spartae  ruinis ;  si  scieris  aspidem 
occulte  latere  uspiam,  improbe  feceris  nisi  monueris  alterum  ne  assideat. 

Note  1.— The  time  is  either  present  or  future.  The  present  subjunctive 
is  often  used  of  a  future  contingency,  and  the  perfect  like  a  future  perfect. 


220  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

Note  2.— The  primary  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  may  be  used  even  in  a 
condition  contrary  to  fact:  as,  tu  si  hie  sis,  aliter  sentias ;  but  this  is 
simply  avoiding  to  add  to  the  statement  of  the  pure  supposition  an  indica- 
tion of  its  quality  as  false. 

Note  3. — The  apodosis  may  be  in  the  indicative ;  especially  in  the  case 
of  verbs  of  ability  or  duty,  or  of  est  with  longum,  immensum,  inflnltum, 
or  a  gerundive  :  as,  hi  te  homines  neque  debent  adjuvare  si  possint,  neque 
possunt  si  velint ;  immensum  est,  si  velim  singula  referre;  si  valeant 
homines,  ars  tua,  Phoebe  jacet  (here  the  certainty  is  emphasized). 

Note  4. — The  second  person  singular  of  the  subjunctive  represents  an 
indefinite  subject,  you  being  used  in  a  lively  way  for  some  one,  any  one. 

4.  In  conditions  stated  as  contrary  to  /act,  both  in  protasis 
and  apodosis  the  imperfect  subjunctive  is  used  of  present  or 
general  time,  and  the  pluperfect  subjunctive  of  past  time  : 

As,  pacem  non  peterem,  nisi  utilem  crederem,  I  would  not  seek  peace, 
if  I  did  not  believe  it  advantageous  (the  supposition  that  I  did  not  believe  it 
advantageous  is  contrary  to  the  fact) ;  si  Metelli  fidei  difflsus  essem,  judi- 
cem  euni  non  retinuissem ;  ulla  si  tibi  poena  nocnisset  unquam,  crederem ; 
consilium,  ratio,  sententia  nisi  essent  in  senibus,  non  sumnium  consilium 
majores  nostri  appellassent  senatum. 

1.  The  imperfect  is  sometimes  found  of  past  time,  by  a  liveliness  of 
speech  similar  to  that  in  the  use  of  the  historical  present. 

2.  The  imperfect  is  sometimes  used  in  conditional  sentences  of  continued 
action  in  the  past. 

3.  The  indicative  is  sometimes  found  where  either  the  condition  or  the 
conclusion  is  stated  in  a  lively  manner  as  if  a  fact :  as,  Antoui  gladios 
potuit  contemnere,  si  sic  omnia  dixisset,  he  really  could  have  despised ; 
labebar  longius,  nisi  me  retinuissem;  pons  sublicius  iter  paene  hostibus 
dedit,  ni  unus  vir  fuisset,  Horatius  Codes.    The  last  two  examples  may  be 
explained  by  supplying  an  apodosis  for  the  following  conditional  clause  :  I 
was  slipping,  and  should  have  fallen,  had  I  not  checked  myself;  almost 
gave  a  way,  and  would  have  given  it. 

4.  When  the  apodosis  itself  depends  upon  a  clause  requiring  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  the  subjunctive,  instead  of  the  pluperfect  subjunctive  the  peri- 
phrastic perfect  subjunctive  is  used. 

5.  The  periphrastic  pluperfect  subjunctive  is  sometimes  found  in  a  de- 
pendent question,  after  a  secondary  tense. 

216.   MIXED   CONDITIONAL   CONSTRUCTIONS. 

In  Latin,  as  in  all  other  cultivated  tongues,  various  un- 
usual combinations  of  moods  and  tenses  in  the  protasis  and 
apodosis  sometimes  occur,  the  propriety  of  which  is  shown  in 
each  instance  by  general  principles  of  language. 


CONDITIONAL   SENTENCES.  221 

217.    OTHER  WAYS  OF  DENOTING   CONDITIONS. 

1.  A  condition  may  be  denoted  by  a  participle,  an  adjective, 
or  an  ablative  absolute,  or  be  merely  implied  in  the  context : 

As,  uno  proelio  victus  (=  si  victus  esset)  Alexander  bello  victus  esset ; 
animi  magnitude,  remota  communitate  humana  (=si  remota  sit  com- 
munitas)  feritas  sit  quaedam  et  immanitas ;  nemo  sine  spe  immortalitatis 
(=  nisi  spes  esset)  se  pro  patria  offerret  ad  mortem ;  illlus  impulsu  (=  si 
ab  illo  impulsa  essent)  moenia  mota  forent. 

a.  So  spmetimes  the  apodosis  : 

As,  vir,  nisi  in  llbera  civitate  natus  esset,  memorabilia,  a  man  (who  would 
be)  worthy  of  renown,  had  he  not  been  born  in  a  free  state. 

2.  A  concessive  clause  may  serve  as  a  condition  : 

As,  ut  rationem  Plato  nullam  afferret,  ipsa  auctoritate  me  frangeret, 
even  if  Plato  adduced  no  argument. 

3.  Dum,  modo,  dummodo,  with  or  without  ne,  if  only,  if 
only  not,  take  the  subjunctive. 

4.  A  question,  or  an  imperative,  may  serve  as  a  condition. 

5.  Clauses  introduced  by  temporal  or  local  adverbs  are  sometimes  equiv- 
alent to  conditional  clauses. 


218.  GNOMIC  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

The  subjunctive,  generally  in  the  second  person  singular,  is  often  used 
in  general  maxims :  as,  bonus  segnior  fit  ubi  neglegas,  a  good  man's 
energy  declines  when  you  neglect  him. 

219.  SUPPRESSED  PROTASIS. 
A.  condition  is  sometimes  not  expressed  : 

As,  hoc  tantum  bellum  quis  umquam  arbitraretur  uno  anno  confici 
posse,  who  would  think  ?  id  velim  mihi  ignoscas,  /  should  like ;  libenter 
omnibus  omnis  opes  concesserim,  I  would  grant. 

1.  The  unexpressed  condition  may  be  if  occasion  arose,  if  a  trial  were 
made,  if  I  (or  other  person)  were  there,  were  to  do  what  the  expressed  verb 
implies,  and  the  like. 

2.  Cases  of  this  kind  may  often  be  explained  more  simply  as  instances 
of  the  subjunctive's  implying  directly  ^villingness  or  inclination. 

3.  The  second  person  singular  is  used  where  the  subject 
is  indefinite  (you  meaning  any  one) : 

As,  maesti,  crederes  victos,  redeunt,  you  would  believe  them  conquered. 
19* 


222  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

220.    OMITTED  APODOSIS  IN  SENTENCES  OF  COM- 
PARISON. 

With  quasi,  ut  si,  velut  si,  ac  si,  taxnquam  si,  sicuti, 
ceu,  etc.,  the  verb  of  the  apodosis  is  often  omitted  : 

As,  ita  honores  petunt,  quasi  honeste  vlxerint,  as  if  they  led  honorable 
lives,  i.  e.,  as  they  would  seek  them,  if  they  led,  etc. 

1.  With  tamquam  and  velut,  the  si  also  is  sometimes  omitted. 

2.  The  omitted  verb  is  a  hypothetical  repetition  of  the  verb  of  the  prin- 
cipal sentence. 

3.  There  is  a  similar  omission  when  si  is  used  in  wishes  (g  203,  3). 

221.   RELATIVES  IN  THE  PROTASIS. 

The  protasis  in  a  conditional  sentence  may  be  introduced  by  a  relative : 
as,  qui  (=  si  quis)  videret  equum  Trojanum  introductum,  urbem  captam 
dlceret ;  haec  qui  videat,  nonne  cogatur  confiteri  deos  esse,  if  any  one  sees 
this,  will  fie  not  be  compelled  f 

1 .  The  same  mood  and  tense  are  used  as  in  ordinary  conditional  sentences. 

222.   RELATIVE  GLAUSES  OF  PURPOSE. 

A  relative  clause  denoting  a  purpose,  and  equivalent  to  ut 
with  a  personal  or  demonstrative  pronoun,  takes  the  subjunc- 
tive : 

As,  Clusmi  legates  Romam  qui  auxilium  a  senatu  peterent  misere,  to 
seek  aid  from  the  senate  (qui  =  ut  ii,  that  they  should  seek  aid) ;  homini 
natura  addidit  rationem,  qua  regerentur  animi  appetltus,  that  by  it  the 
passions  of  the  soul  might  be  governed,. 

Note  1.— A  relative  clause  denoting  a  destination  takes  the  subjunctive : 
as,  Germani  neque  Druldes  habent,  qui  rebus  dTvmis  praesint,  to  pre- 
side over  their  religious  ceremonies. 

Note  2. — A  relative  clause  may  be  introduced  by  a  relative  particle  (as, 
ubi,  quo,  unde),  as  well  as  by  a  relative  pronoun. 

223.  RELATIVE  CLAUSES  DEFINING  A    QUALITY. 

1.  A  relative  clause  defining  a  quality  of  an  antecedent,  takes 
the  subjunctive  : 

As,  L.  Pinarius  erat  vir  acer  et  qui  nihil  in  fide  Siculorum  reponeret, 
one  who  trusted  nothing,  etc. ;  Syracusani,  homines  periti,  qui  etiam  occulta 
suspicari  possent,  etc.,  such  as  could. 

Note  1.— Such  clauses  are  similar  to  clauses  of  result,  qui  being  equiva- 
lent to  talis  ut  is. 


MOODS  IN  RELATIVE  CLAUSES.  223 

Note  2.— The  antecedent  is  frequently  a  demonstrative,  as  is,  talis, 
tantus,  tarn,  etc. :  as,  ea  est  Romana  gens  quae  victa  quiescere  nesciat ; 
innocentia  est  affectio  talis  animi  quae  noceat  nemini ;  quis  potest  esse 
tarn  aversus  a  vero  qui  neget,  etc. 

2.  The    adjectives    dignus,  indignus,    idoneus,    aptus, 
solus,  unus,  primus,  ultimus,  are  often  followed  by  a  rela- 
tive with  the  subjunctive  completing  their  meaning : 

As,  digna  res  est  quam  diu  consideremus,  the  matter  is  worthy  of  our 
long  consideration;  sola  est  in  qua  merito  culpetur  pecuniae  cupiditas, 
the  only  thing  in  which  he  can  be  rightly  blamed. 

Note. — The  infinitive  after  adjectives  of  this  kind  is  frequent  in  poets, 
but  rare  in  prose :  as,  legi  dignus,  worthy  of  being  read.  Ut  with  the 
subjunctive  is  sometimes  found. 

3.  Indefinite  and  interrogative  pronouns,  and  general 
negatives,  are  denned  by  relative  clauses  with  the  subjunctive : 

As,  est  aliquid  quod  non  oporteat ;  quis  est  qui  utilia  fugiat  1  nemo  est 
qui  haud  intellegat ;  nihil  est  quod  tarn  miseros  faoiat  quam  impietas  et 
scelus. 

1.  In  a  negative  relative  clause,  depending  on  a  negative  or  interroga- 
tive clause,  qui  non  (qui  nunquam,  qui  nusquam)  may  be  used,  or  quin 
for  qui  non :  as,  nee  quisquam  rex  Persarum  potest  esse,  qui  non  ante 
Magorum  disciplinam  perceperit ;  nihil  est  quin  (=  quod  non)  male  nar- 
rando  possit  depravari ;  nullum  intermisi  diem  quin  (=  quo  non)  scribe- 
rem,  without  writing. 

2.  Quin  rarely  stands  for  any  case  except  the  nominative  or  ablative ; 
but  exceptions  occur :  as,  nego  ullum  vas  fuisse,  quin  (=  quod  non)  Verres 
conqulsierit. 

4.  Indefinite  general  expressions  are  defined  by  a  rela- 
tive clause  with  the  subjunctive  : 

As,  sunt  qui  discessum  animi  a  corpore  putent  esse  mortem,  there  are 
those  who  think,  etc. ;  pauciores  viri  reperti  sunt  qui  suas  cupiditates 
quam  qui  hostium  copias  vincerent. 

Note.— Such  expressions  are  est  qui,  sunt  qui,  reperitur  qui ;  habeo, 
invenio,  reperio  qui ;  exstitit  qui. 

5.  A  relative  clause  after  a  comparative  with  quam  takes 
the  subjunctive : 

As,  Campani  majora  dellquerant  quam  quibus  ignosci  posset,  greater 
offences  than  could  be  pardoned. 

Note. — Quam  ut  is  also  found,  and  even  quam  alone,  without  a  relative : 
as,  major  sum  quam  ut  mancipium  sim  mei  corporis,  I  am  too  great  to  be 
the  slave  of  my  body. 


224  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

6.  Relative  clauses  restricting  a  general  assertion  may  take 
the  subjunctive : 

As,  ex  oratoribus  Atticis  antlquissimi  sun!,  quorum  quidem  scripta  con- 
stent,  Pericles  et  Alcibiades,  of  those  at  least  whose  writings  are  known ; 
Epicurus  se  unus,  quod  sciam,  sapientem  profiteri  est  ausus,  a*  far  as  I 
know. 

1.  This  subjunctive  is  used  especially  witb>  qui  quidem,  qui  modo. 

224.    QUI  MEANING  BECAUSE  HE. 

A  relative  clause  expressing  the  reason  of  the  leading  propo- 
sition takes  the  subjunctive  : 

As,  miseret  tui  me,  qui  hunc  tantum  hominem  facias  inimlcum  tibi,  be- 
cause you  make  ;  O  fortunate  adulescens,  qui  tuae  virtutis  Homerum  prae- 
conem  inveneris,  in  that  you  have  found. 

Note  1. — The  assigning  of  the  reason  is  strengthened  by  using  utpote  qui, 
ut  qui,  or  praesertim  qui,  with  the  subjunctive.  Quippe  qui  takes  the 
subjunctive,  or  in  some  writers,  as  Sallust  and  Livy,  the  indicative. 

Note  2.— The  indicative  is  common,  particularly  in  old  Latin. 

Note  3.— The  relative  pronoun  followed  by  quia  or  quoniam  generally 
takes  the  indicative. 

225.   QUI  MEANING  ALTHOUGH  HE. 

Qui  equivalent  to  although  with  a  personal  or  demonstrative 
pronoun  takes  the  subjunctive  : 

As,  nosmet  ipsi,  qui  Lycurgei  a  principio  fuissemus,  quotldie  demiti- 
gamur,  though  we  had  been  strict  as  Lycurgus. 
1.  On  the  indicative  in  such  clauses,  see  g  204, 1. 

226.    SUBJUNCTIVE  DEPENDENT  ON  ANOTHER  SUB- 
JUNCTIVE OR  AN  INFINITIVE. 

A  relative  clause  forming  an  essential  part  of  a  sentence 
whose  verb  is  in  the  subjunctive  or  the  infinitive,  takes  the 
subjunctive : 

As,  erat  in  Hortensio  memoria  tanta  ut,  quae  secum  commentatus  esset, 
ea  sine  scripto  verbis  eisdem  redderet,  quibus  cogitavisset ;  non  is  sum, 
qui,  quicquid  videtur,  tale  dlcam  ease,  quale  videatur ;  spem  afferunt  posse 
animos,  cum  e  corporibus  excesserint,  in  caelum  pervemre. 

Note  1. — If  a  fact  is  to  be  stated  as  such,  the  indicative  must  be  used.  In 
many  cases  it  seems  indifferent  whether  the  indicative  or  subjunctive  be 
chosen. 


ORATIO   OBLIQUA.  225 

Note  2. — The  incorporated  clause  may  be  introduced  by  a  relative  adverb 
or  conjunction,  as  well  as  by  a  pronoun. 

227.   RELATIVES  WITH  THE  INDICATIVE. 

In  any  of  the  uses  of  the  relative,  after  affirmative  expres- 
sions, the  indicative  may  be  found  when  a  fact  is  stated  or 
emphasized,  rather  than  a  quality  or  a  thought. 

1.  Thus  the  indicative  may  be  used  in  simple  definitions  of  existing 
things  or  persons  or  classes :  as,  Sp.  Thorius,  is  qui  agruni  publicum  lege 
vectigali  levavit ;  eae  artes,  quas  qui  tenent  eruditi  appellantur ;  utrum 
tibi  commodum  est,  elige ;  virtus  est  una  quae  nunquam  vi  ulla  labefactari 
potest;  sunt  multi  qui  eripiunt  aliis  quod  aliis  largiantur;  sunt  qui  non 
habeant,  est  qui  non  curat  habere,  there  is  one  whom  I  have  in  mind  (per- 
haps the  poet  himself ),  who  certainly  does  not  care  to  have;  Catonem 
vero  quis  nostrorum  oratorum,  qui  quidem  nunc  sunt,  legit  ? 

228.    ORATIO   OBLIQUA. 

Note.— When  a  reported  statement,  question,  or  supposition  is  dependent 
upon  such  a  verb  as  said,  or  some  similar  expression,  in  such  a  way  as  to 
change  any  of  the  pronouns,  cases,  moods,  or  tenses  used  by  the  original 
speaker,  the  narrative  is  called  indirect,  or  oratio  obllqua. 

In  oratio  recta,  or  direct  narration,  on  the  contrary,  the  very  words  of 
the  speaker  or  writer  are  quoted. 

1.  In  oratio  obllqua  principal  clauses  take  the  infinitive, 
generally  with  a  subject -accusative  ;  dependent  clauses  take 
the  subjunctive : 

As,  Antonius  docet,  artem  earum  rerum  esse,  quae  sciantur ;  oratoris 
autem  omnem  actionem  opinionibus,  non  scientia,  contineri ;  quia  et  apud 
eos  dlcat,  qui  nesciant,  et  ipse  dlcat,  quod  nesciat. 

In  oratio  recta  we  should  have :  ars  earum  rerum  est,  quae  sciuntur ; 
oratoris  autem  omnis  actio  opinionibus,  non  scientia,  continetur;  nam  et 
apud  eos  dlcit,  qui  nesciunt,  et  ea  dicit,  quae  nescit  ipse. 

1.  Dependent  clauses  are  chiefly  relative,  or  introduced  by  si,  cum, 
dum,  quod,  or  quia. 

2.  Occasionally  short  relative  clauses  are  attracted  into  the  infinitive. 
Those  relative  sentences  in  which  qui  =  et  is  or  nam  is,  quum  =  et  turn, 
etc.,  usually  have  the  infinitive. 

3.  Dum  is  sometimes  found  with  the  indicative,  especially  in  the  poets : 
as,  die  hospes  Spartae  nos  te  hie  vidisse  jacentes,  dum  sanctis  patriae  legibus 
obsequimur. 

P 


226  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

2.  The  imperative  in  oratio  recta  becomes  the  imperfect 
subjunctive  in  5ratio  obliqua  : 

As,  fidem  Pompeii  implorarent :  praestaret  quod  recepisset,  calling  on 
him  to  make  good  the  promise  he  had  made ;  in  oratio  recta,  praesta  quod 
recepisti. 

1.  But  the  present  and  perfect  subjunctive  are  sometimes  found.  (See 
§  228,  9.) 

3.  Questions  to  which  an  answer  is  expected,  are  put  in  the 
subjunctive  in  5ratio  obliqua : 

As,  Veios  jam  fore  in  potestate  populi  Romani :  quid  de  praeda  faciendum 
censerent  1  [Camillus  reported]  that  Veii  would  soon  be  in  the  power  of  the 
Roman  people,  [and  asked]  what  they  thought  should  be  done  with  the 
booty ;  in  oratio  recta,  quid  de  praeda  faciendum  censetis  * 

4.  Mere  rhetorical  questions  are  generally  treated  as  belong- 
ing to  the  principal  clause,  and  are  put  in  the  infinitive  in 
oratio  obliqua : 

As,  quid  esse  turpius  quam  auctore  hoste  capere  consilium  ?  [the  military 
tribunes  asked  indignantly,]  what  could  be  baser  than  to  shape  one's  plans 
by  an  enemy's  advice?  in  oratio  recta,  quid  est  turpius  1 

5.  When  an  indicative  is  found  in  5ratio  obliqua,  it  gives 
an  assertion  of  the  narrator,  not  of  the  person  whose  speech  is 
reported  : 

As,  Caesar  per  exploratores  certior  factus  est,  ex  ea  parte  vici  quam  Gallis 
concesserat,  omnes  discessisse,  Caesar  was  informed  through  scouts  that  all 
had  retired  from  that  part  of  the  town  which  he  had  granted  to  the  Gauls. 
Quam  Gallis  concesserat  is  Caesar's  explanation  for  his  readers.  Had  it 
been  part  of  what  the  scouts  said,  concessisset  would  have  been  used. 

6.  The  imperfect  and  pluperfect  subjunctive,  in  the  apodosis  to  a  con- 
ditional sentence  in  oratio  recta,  are  in  oratio  obliqua  expressed  in  the 
active  voice  by  the  future  participle  with  fuisse :  in  the  passive  by  the 
periphrase  futurum  fuisse  ut.    The  future  participle  with  esse  is  used  also 
for  the  present  (and  sometimes  for  the  imperfect)  subjunctive  active; 
and  fore  or  futurum  esse  ut  for  the  present  (and  sometimes  for  the  imper- 
fect) subjunctive  passive. 

7.  The  ordinary  perfect  infinitive  is  sometimes  found,  representing  the 
pluperfect  subjunctive  of  the  oratio  recta,  in  the  same  way  as  the  indica- 
tive is  sometimes  used  for  the  subjunctive  in  independent  sentences. 

8.  The  tenses  of  the  infinitive  are  present,  perfect,  or 
future,  according  as  the  time  would  have  been  present,  past, 
or  future  in  the  oratio  recta. 


ORATIO   OBLIQUA. 


227 


9.  The  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  are  usually  the  imper- 
fect and  the  pluperfect,  especially  in  commands  or  questions  ; 
but  the  present  and  perfect  are  sometimes  used,  especially  if 
the  verb  on  which  the  whole  indirect  narration  depends  is  in 
the  present. 

10.  The  two  methods  of  reporting  speech  are  illustrated  in  the  following 
extract : 


OKATIO  RECTA. 

Sipa- 

cem  populus  Romanus  cum  Hel- 
vetiis  faciet,  in  earn  partem  ibunt 
atque  ibi  erunt  Helvetii,  ubi  tu  eos 
constitueris  atque  esse  volueris ;  sin 
bello  persequi  perse verabis,  remi- 
niscitor  et  veteris  incommodi  po- 
puli  Romani  et  pristinae  virtu  tis 
Helvetiorum.  Quod  improviso  u- 
num  pagum  adortus  es,  cum  ii  qui 
flumen  transierant  suis  auxilium 
ferre  iion  poterant,  ne  ob  earn  rem 
aut  tuae  magnopere  virtuti  tribu- 
eris  aut  nos  despexeris.  Nos  ita  a 
patribus  majoribusque  nostris  didi- 
cimus,  ut  magis  virtute,  quam  dolo 
contendamus  aut  insidiis  nitamur. 
Quare  ne  commiseris  ut  hie  locus 
ubi  constitimus  ex  calamitate  po- 
puli  Romani  et  internecione  exer- 
citus  nomen  capiat  aut  memoriam 
prodat. 


OKATIO  OBLIQUA. 

(Is  ita  cum  Caesare  egit) :  Si 
pacem  populus  Romanus  cum  Hel- 
vetiis  faceret,  in  earn  partem  ituros 
atque  ibi  futures  Helvetios,  ubi  eos 
Caesar  constituisset  atque  esse  volu- 
isset :  sin  bello  persequi  persevera- 
ret,  reminisceretur  et  veteris  incom- 
modi populi  Romani  et  pristinae 
virtutis  Helvetiorum.  Quod  impro- 
viso unum  pagum  adortus  esset, 
cum  ii  qui  flumen  transissent  suis 
auxilium  ferre  non  possent,  ne  ob 
earn  rem  aut  suae  magnopere  vir- 
tuti tribueret  aut  ipsos  despiceret : 
se  ita  a  patribus  majoribusque  suis 
didicisse,  ut  magis  virtute,  quam 
.  dolo  contenderent  aut  insidiis  ni- 
terentur.  Quare  ne  committeret  ut 
is  locus  ubi  constitissent  ex  calami- 
tate populi  Romani  et  internecione 
exercitus  nomen  caperet  aut  me- 
moriam proderet. 


229.  PRONOUNS  IN  ORATIO   OBLIQUA. 

Instead  of  pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  persons,  se, 
suus,  ipse,  is,  and  ille  are  used  in  oratio  obliqua.  Se  and 
suus  refer  to  the  subject  of  the  verb  on  which  the  narrative 
depends,  unless  another  subject  is  introduced,  in  which  case 
the  reference  is  to  be  determined  by  the  general  sense. 

1.  Nos  and  noster  are  sometimes  used  by  Caesar  of  the  Roman  people  or 
Roman  army  generally. 

2.  Quisque,  quisquam,  quis,  with  the  reflexive  pronoun,  sometimes  show 
that  the  reflexive  is  to  be  referred  to  the  subject  of  the  clause  in  which  it 
stands. 


228  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

3.  Ipse,  by  agreeing  with  the  subject  of  a  clause  in  which  there  is  a 
reflexive  pronoun,  shows  the  reference  of  that  pronoun  to  the  subject  of  the 
clause,  rather  than  to  the  principal  subject :  as,  natura  movet  infantein  ut 
se  ipse  dTligat.     (Without  ipse,  se  might  have  been  referred  to  natura.) 

4.  Ipse  may  stand  for  se  when  antithetic  to  some  other  word  (a  noun, 
suns,  or  another  pronoun) ;  it  then  refers  to  the  principal  subject :  as, 
pertimuerunt  ne  ab  ipsis  descisceret  et  cum  snis  in  gratiam  rediret,  the 
Lacedaemonians  feared  that  he  would  withdraw  from  themselves,  and  return 
into  favor  with  hi*  own  countrymen. 

5.  Hie  and  iste  are  rarely  used  in  oratio  obliqua. 

6.  Instances  are  found  of  is,  ejus,  where  the  ordinary  rules  would  require 
se  or  suus. 

230.    VIRTUAL   ORATIO   OBLIQUA. 

A  clause  expressing  the  thoughts,  words,  or  alleged  rea- 
sons of  another  than  the  writer,  takes  the  subjunctive. 

1.  Indirect  statements  of  one's  own  former  thoughts  or  words  may  take 
the  constructions  of  the  oratio  obllqua. 

2.  While  special  rules  are  convenient  for  use,  indirect  questions,  oratio 
obllqua,  and  petltio  obliqua,  may  all  be  referred  to  the  same  principle. 

Note. — The  term  petltio  obllqua  is  applied  to  dependent  constructions 
following  verbs  of  wishing,  commanding,  permitting,  oaring,  striving, 
fearing,  and  the  like. 

231.  INDIRECT  QUESTIONS. 

1.  Indirect  questions  take  the  subjunctive  : 

As,  ne  utile  quidem  est  sclre,  quid  futurum  sit,  it  is  not  even  advan- 
tageous to  know  what  is  to  be  in  the  future;  qualis  sit  animus,  ipse  animus 
nescit ;  natura  declarat  quid  velit. 

Note  1. — An  indirect  question  is  a  dependent  clause  introduced  by  an 
interrogative  pronoun  or  particle,  and  depending  on  some  other  verb  or 
proposition. 

Note  2.— All  the  words  which  are  used  in  direct  questions  with  the 
indicative  take  in  dependent  interrogative  clauses  the  subjunctive;  as, 
quis,  quae,  quid;  qui,  quae,  quod;  quot,  qualis,  quantus,  quam,  quando, 
ubi,  unde,  quare,  cur,  uter,  quo,  quomodo,  quemadmodum,  utrum,  an, 
ne  (enclitic),  num.  Sometimes  also  si. 

2.  Sometimes  in  the  older  writers,  and  occasionally  in  Horace  and  Vergil, 
an  indicative  is  found  in  indirect  questions :  as,  adspice  ut  antrum  silve- 
stris  raris  sparsit  labrusca  racemis,  see  how  the  wild  labrusca  has  sprinkled 
the  cave  with  scattered  grapes. 

3.  An  interrogative  clause  sometimes  accompanies  the  phrase  quid  ais, 


MOODS  IN  CAUSAL   CLAUSES.  229 

the  imperatives  die,  vide,  quaere,  cedo,  or  the  indicative  quaeso,  without 
being  dependent  on  them,  and  hence  has  its  verb  in  the  indicative. 

4.  After  nescio  quis,  nescio  quid,  nescio  qui,  nescio  quod,  nescio  quo- 
modo,  mirum  quam,  mlrum  quantum,  nimium  quantum,  and  some  similar 
expressions,  which  have  come  to  express  a  single  idea,  the  indicative  is 
used,  as  it  would  be  after  aliquis,  etc.  But  dubito  an,  nescio  an,  baud 
scio  an,  are  of  course  followed  by  the  subjunctive. 

232.    CAUSAL   CLAUSES. 

Causal  conjunctions,  quod,  quia,  quoniam,  quando,  take  the 
indicative  when  the  writer  states  the  cause  or  occasion  as  a 
fact,  on  his  own  responsibility,  but  the  subjunctive  if  the 
reason  is  given  as  believed  or  stated  by  another  party. 

In  other  words :  Causal  conjunctions  take  the  indicative  in  direct  dis- 
course, the  subjunctive  in  indirect  (or  virtually  indirect) : 

As,  laudo  te,  quod  rem  tarn  bene  gessisti,  that  you  have,  as  I  see,  man- 
aged, etc. ;  Aristides  expulsus  est  patria,  quod  praeter  modum  Justus  esset, 
because,  as  the  people  said,  he  was  too  just ;  Themistocles  noctu  ambulabat, 
quod  somnum  capere  non  posset,  because,  as  he  alleged,  he  could  not  sleep. 

1.  The  subjunctive  sometimes  intimates  that  the  reason  given  is  not  the 
true  reason  :  especially  with  non  quod,  or  non  quo ;  after  which  the  true 
reason  is  introduced  by  sed  quod  or  sed  quia  with  the  indicative. 

2.  A  writer  or  speaker  may  treat  his  own  opinion  as  if  it  were  that  of 
another  man,  and  thus  use  the  subjunctive :  intimating  that  at  a  certain  time 
this  was  his  opinion,  without  showing  what  his  opinion  now  is  (§  230,  1). 

3.  Quod  takes  the  subjunctive  of  verbs  meaning  to  say  or  think,  when 
logically  not  these  verbs,  but  the  verbs  depending  upon  them  should  have 
been  in  that  mood  :  as,  rediit,  quod  se  oblitum  nescio  quid  dlceret  (=  quod 
oblltus  esset,  or,  quod  se  oblitum  esse  dlcebat) ;  multi  praetores  quaestores 
et  legates  suos  de  provincia  decedere  jusserunt,  quod  eorum  culpa  se  minus 
commode  audire  arbitrarentur.     So  with  nego,  puto,  etc. 

4.  After  verbs  denoting  a  feeling  of  pain  or  joy,  admiration,  thanks, 
complaint,  quod  may  be  used,  or, more  often,  the  accusative  and  infinitive; 
after  verbs  denoting  the  expression  of  such  feelings,  quod  is  more  often 
used  than  the  accusative  and  infinitive.    The  mood  after  quod  is  deter- 
mined by  general  rules. 

5.  Quod  is  used  in  clauses  explaining  a  demonstrative  pronoun :  as,  con- 
tentus  eo,  quod  ratio  plebeiorum  habita  esset,  content  with  this,  that  regard 
had  been  had,  etc. 

233.    QUOD  MEANING   THE  FACT  THAT. 

Quod  is  used  with  the  indicative  (or  subjunctive  in  oratio 
obliqua)  to  mean  the  fact  that,  or  as  regards  the  fact  that. 
20 


230  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

Utile  est  patrem  adisse  means  the  presence  of  the  father  is  useful,  with- 
out implying  whether  he  is  present  or  not ;  utile  est,  quod  pater  adest, 
signifies  the  father  is  present,  and  his  presence  is  useful. 

Quod  scrlbis,  te  ad  me  venturum,  ego  te  istic  esse  volo,  as  regards  your 
writing  that  you  will  come  to  see  me,  I  wish  you  to  remain  where  you  are. 
Quid  quod  eadem  mente  res  dissimillimas  comprendimus  ?  what  of  the  fact 
that,  etc.  Similarly  nisi  quod,  with  the  exception  that. 

SEQUENCE  OF  TENSES  IN  THE  SUBJUNC- 
TIVE  MOOD. 

234.  The  present  and  perfect  are  used  in  sentences  depend- 
ent on  primary  tenses ;  the  imperfect,  aorist,  and  pluper- 
fect, in  sentences  dependent  on  secondary  tenses. 

In  other  words:  on  primary  tenses  (§  66,  7)  primary  tenses  follow;  on 
secondary  tenses,  secondary. 

1.  The  historical  present  may  be  followed  either  by  primary  or  by  sec- 
ondary tenses.    In  the  former  case  the  form  governs,  in  the  latter  (which 
is  more  common),  the  meaning :  as,  rogat  Rubrium  ut  quos  ei  commodum 
sit  invltet;  servis  suis  Rubrius  ut  januam  clauderent  imperat. 

2.  Even  in  sentences  dependent  on  a  secondary  tense,  the  present  is 
used  of  such  actions  as  belong  to  the  present  time  only :  as,  Siciliam  ita 
vexavit,  ut  ea  restitui  in  antiquum  statum  nullo  modo  possit,  he  did  such 
damage  to  Sicily,  that  it  cannot  be  restored. 

3.  A  secondary  tense  may  be  used  in  the  statement  of  a  general  truth, 
if  the  law  of  sequence  requires,  although  the  present  is  preferred  in  English. 

4.  The  true  perfect,  though  a  primary  tense,  is  sometimes  followed  by 
secondary  tenses. 

5.  The  perfect  is  used  in  consecutive  sentences  of  a  result  completed  in  the 
present  time  only ;  and  the  historical  perfect,  or  aorist,  of  an  event  simply 
regarded  as  in  past  time,  without  reference  to  its  being  contemporaneous  or 
prior  to  other  past  events:  as,  a.  Aemilius  Paullus  tantum  in  aerarium 
pecuniae  invexit  ut  unlus  imperatoris  praeda  linem  attulerit  tributorum, 
has  put  an  end ;  b.  tantum  opes  creverant,  ut  ne  morte  quidem  Aeneae  movere 
anna  Etrusci  ausi  sint,  did  the  Etrurians  dare.    Cicero  rarely  uses  this 
aorist  subjunctive ;  Nepos  often. 

6.  Clauses  following  an  accusative  with  the  infinitive  are  governed  in 
tense  by  the  leading  verb  on  which  the  accusative  itself  depends. 

7.  After  the  primary  tenses,  the  future  is  represented  by  the  present 
subjunctive,  the  future  perfect  by  the  perfect  subjunctive ;  after  secondary 
tenses,  the  future  is  represented  by  the  imperfect,  the  future  perfect  by 
the  pluperfect.     But  when  future  time  is  to  be  strongly  marked,  the  active 
periphrastic  conjugation  is  used  (i.  e.,  part,  in  -rus  with  sim  or  essem). 


THE  INFINITIVE  MOOD.  231 

8.  When  the  pluperfect  subjunctive  in  the  apodosis  of  a  conditional 
sentence  is  subordinated,  so  as  to  form  a  clause  of  result  or  an  indirect 
question,  the  periphrastic  perfect  subjunctive  takes  its  place. 

THE   INFINITIVE. 

235.  The  Infinitive  is  an  indeclinable  verbal  noun :  but  it  may  have  a 
subject  or  object;  it  contains  the  notion  of  time ;  it  governs  the  case  of  its 
verb ;  and  it  is  modified  by  adverbs,  not  by  adjectives. 

236.   INFINITIVE  AS  SUBJECT,   PREDICATE,    OR  AP- 
POSITIVE. 

The  infinitive,  with  or  without  a  subject-accusative,  may  be 
the  subject  QIC  predicate  of  a  finite  verb,  or  used  as  an  appositive: 

As,  turpe  est  fugere,  to  fly  is  disgraceful;  vlvere  est  cogitare,  living 
is  thinking;  videtur  sapiens  esse,  he  seems  to  be  wise;  istuc  ipsum,  non 
esse  cum  fueris,  miserrimum  puto,  I  think  this  very  thing  most  wretched, 
not  to  be  when  you  have  been. 

1.  The  infinitive  as  subject  is  found  chiefly  with  esse  and  impersonal 
verbs. 

237.   INFINITIVE  AS  OBJECT  OF  A    VERB. 

The  infinitive,  with  or  without  a  subject-accusative,  may 
be  the  object  of  a  verb : 

As,  vincere  scis,  Hannibal ;  victoria  uti  nescis,  you  know  how  to  win 
a  victory,  Hannibal,  you  do  not  know  how  to  use  it ;  scio  Caesarem  abisse 
victorem,  /  know  that  Caesar  came  off  victorious. 

238,   INFINITIVE  WITH  A  SUBJECT-ACCUSATIVE. 

The  infinitive  with  a  subject-accusative  is  governed  by  verbs 
signifying  to  feel,  think,  know,  say,  and  the  like  : 

As,  sentimus  nivem  esse  albam,  we  perceive  by  our  senses  that  snow  is 
white;  credunt  se  neglegi,  they  believe  that  they  are  neglected ;  scio  ple- 
rosque  scripsisse,  I  know  that  most  writers  have  recorded;  nuntiat  regi 
adversaries  ejus  in  fuga  esse,  he  informs  the  king  that  his  enemies  are  in 
flight. 

Note  1.— Such  verbs  are  called  verba  sentiendi  et  decldrandi.  The  prin- 
cipal verbs  of  this  kind  are  audio,  video,  sentio,  animadverto,  cognosco, 
intellego,  percipio,  disco,  scio,  credo,  arbitror,  puto,  oplnor,  duco,  sta- 
tuo,  memini,  recorder,  obliviscor;  dlco,  trado,  prodo,  scrlbo,  refero, 
nuntio,  confirmo,  nego,  ostendo,  demonstro,  perhibeo,  promitto,  polli- 
ceor,  spondeo,  and  some  others. 


232  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

Note  2.— For  the  accusative  and  infinitive  after  verbs  of  joy,  pain,  etc., 
see  g  232,  4. 

Note  3.— Where  a  clause  containing  an  accusative  with  an  infinitive  is 
followed  by  a  relative  clause  in  which  the  same  verb  is  understood,  the 
subject  of  the  latter  clause  is  in  the  infinitive :  as,  Platonem  ferunt  censisse 
idem,  quod  Pythagoram  (sc.  sensisse).  So  in  clauses  introduced  by  quam 
after  a  comparative. 

a.  Phrases  equivalent  to  verbs,  like  certior  factns  est,  auctor  est,  aliquem 
apes  tenet,  spem  affero,  etc.,  in  like  manner  take  the  accusative  and 
infinitive. 

239.  The  accusative  with  the  infinitive  is  the  subject  of  the 
verb  sum  with  a  predicate,  or  of  an  impersonal  verb  : 

As,  accusatores  multos  esse  in  ctvitate  utile  est,  it  is  advantageous  that 
there  should  be  many  accusers  in  a  state;  legem  brevem  esse  oportet,  a 
law  ought  to  be  brief ;  facinus  est  cTvem  vinoiri. 

1.  The  subject  cannot  be  expressed  with  the  infinitive  when  it  is  an  in- 
definite person ;  hence  we  say  ignoscere  amico  humanum  est,  to  forgive 
a  friend  is  becoming  in  a  man;  facinus  est  vincire  civem  Romanum,  to 
bind  a  Roman  citizen  is  a  crime. 

2.  The  verbs  sum,  and  those  denoting  to  appear,  to  be  considered,  to  be 
called,  require  the  predicate,  if  declinable,  to  agree  with  the  unexpressed 
subject  in  the  accusative :  as,  contentum  suis  rebus  esse  maximae  sunt 
divitiae;  maguis  in  laudibus  tota  fere  fuit  Graecia  victorem  Olympiae 
citari ;  fidelem  esse  in  minimo  magnum  est;  non  esse  emacem  vectigal 
est. 

3.  The  impersonals  licet,  decet,  oportet,  opns  est,  necesse  est,  are 
joined  with  the  infinitive  active  alone,  or  with  an  accusative  with  the 
infinitive  in  the  passive :  as,  ex  malis  eligere  minima  oportet ;  ex  malis 
eligi  minima  oportet. 

240.  The  accusative  with  the  infinitive  stands  by  itself  in 
exclamations,  and  in  indignant  questions  : 

As,  te  mine,  mea  Terentia,  sic  vexari,  idque  fieri  mea  culpa,  for  thee 
now,  my  dear  Terentia,  to  be  in  such  distress!  and  thai  this  should  happen 
by  my  fault !  mine  incepto  desistere  victam,  7,  vanquished,  give  up  what 
I  have  undertaken  ? 

1.  In  these  cases  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive  is  the  object  of  some 
unexpressed  thought  or  feeling. 

2.  Tit  with  the  subjunctive  is  also  used  in  exclamatory  questions:  as, 
victamne  ut  quisquam  victrici  patriae  praeferat,  that  any  one  should  pre- 
fer a  conquered  to  a  victorious  country  ? 


THE  INFINITIVE  MOOD.  233 

241.  INFINITIVE  AFTER  CAN,    WISH,    OUGHT,  AM 
ACCUSTOMED,  ETC. 

Verbs  which  require  to  be  followed  by  a  second  verb  with 
the  same  subject  govern  the  infinitive  of  that  second  verb  : 

As,  possum  (or  volo,  audeo,  debeo,  soleo,  etc.)  hanc  rem  facere ;  vin- 
cere  scis,  Hannibal ;  victoria  uti  nescis ;  non  destitit  monere ;  institit 
sequi ;  maturat  proficisci ;  mitte  orare  ;  odi  peccare ;  Antium  me  recipere 
cogito ;  nemo  alteri  concedere  in  animum  inducebat. 

1.  Such  are  verbs  signifying  will,  power,  duty,  purpose,  custom,  begin- 
ning, continuance,  ending,  neglect,  etc. ;  and  in  the  poets  other  verbs  ad- 
mitting a  similar  meaning  figuratively  ;  also  phrases  of  similar  purport : 
as,  habeo  in  animo,  in  animo  est,  consilium  est,  consilium  cepi,  certum 
est,  animum  (or  in  animum)  induxi,  etc. 

2.  Verbs  denoting  a  determined  purpose  are  found  also  with  ut. 

3.  When  these  verbs  are  joined  with  esse,  haberi,  judicari,  videri,  and 
the  like,  the  predicate  is  put  in  the  nominative :  as,  solet  tristis  videri ; 
aude  sapiens  esse ;  meretur  (scit,  didicit)  liber  esse. 

4.  Volo,  nolo,  malo,  cupio,  opto,  studeo,  have  a  twofold  construction : 
the  infinitive  without  a  subject-accusative  is  used  after  them  when  the 
subject  remains  the  same ;  and  when  they  are  followed  by  esse,  haberi, 
judicari,  videri,  etc.,  the  predicate  is  in  the  nominative:  but  the  accusa- 
tive with  the  infinitive  is  used  when  the  subject  is  changed,  or  when  the 
pronoun  of  the  same  person  is  repeated :  as,  volo  erudltus  fieri ;  volo  me 
erudltum  fieri ;  volo  te  eruditum  fieri ;    princgps  esse  maluit  quam  vi- 
deri ;  principem  se  esse  maluit  quam  videri. 

5.  The  use  of  the  nominative  with  the  infinitive  after  other  verba  senti- 
endi  et  declarandi  (§  238,  n.  1)  is  very  rare  and  poetical :  as,  vir  bonus  et 
sapiens  dignis  ait  esse  paratus. 

6.  Vergil,  in  imitation  of  the  Greek  idiom,  uses  a  participle  in  one  pas- 
sage instead  of  an  accusative  with  the  infinitive :  sensit  medics  delapsus 
in  hostes,  instead  of  se  delapsum  esse. 

242.  INFINITIVE,  ACCUSATIVE  AND  INFINITIVE,  OR 
UT  WITH  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

1.  Verbs  denoting  willingness,  unwillingness,  permission,  and  neces- 
sity, commonly  take  the  infinitive  or  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive, 
but  sometimes  the  subjunctive. 

2.  Volo  takes  after  it  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive  passive.    With 
the  perfect  infinitive,  esse  is  often  omitted :  as,  hoc  factum  volo. 

3.  Volo  ut  is  more  rare,  but  is  used  to  express  a  strong  emphasis.    Malo 
takes  either  ut  or  the  infinitive. 

4.  Patior  and  sino  are  generally  followed  by  the  accusative  and  infini- 

20* 


234  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

tive,  sometimes  by  nt  with  the  subjunctive ;  opto,  concede,  permitto,  may 
have  either  the  infinitive  or  nt;  posco,  postnlo,  flagito,  cogo,  more  fre- 
quently ut. 

5.  Verbs  of  resolving  and  endeavoring  are  followed  by  nt  or  ne  when 
the  dependent  clause  has  a  subject  of  its  own;  when  the  same  subject  re- 
mains, they  more  often  have  an  infinitive. 

6.  Verbs  of  asking,  advising,  exhorting,  persnading,  are  followed  by 
nt  or  ne.    They  take  the  infinitive  only  exceptionally. 

7.  Jubeo  and  veto  take  generally  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive,  or 
the  infinitive  alone,  if  the  subject  is  a  general  word  or  easily  understood ; 
sometimes  the  subjunctive  with   (or  rarely  without)  ut  or  ne :  as,  eos 
suuni  adventum  exspectare  jnssit;   infandum  jubes  renovare  dolorem; 
jussit  nt  naves  Euboeam  peterent ;  jnbe  mihi  denuo  respondeat;  avarum 
veto  te  fieri ;  desperatis  Hippocrates  vetat  adhibere  medicmam.    Impero, 
besides  the  subjunctive,  takes  an  infinitive  in  early  and  post- Augustan 
Latin,  but  only  the  passive  infinitive  in  Cicero  and  Caesar. 

8.  Many  Latin  verbs  which  we  might  suppose  would  take  the  accusa- 
tive with  the  infinitive,  take  ut  with  the  subjunctive,  either  exclusively, 
or  admit  the  construction  of  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive  besides. 

Observation  of  the  usage  of  classic  writers,  and  reference  to  lexicons 
for  the  tyro,  will  gradually  teach  the  constructions  usual  with  any  partic- 
ular verb. 

243.  HISTORIC  INFINITIVE. 

The  infinitive  is  sometimes  used  with  a  nominative,  when 
we  might  expect  the  imperfect  indicative  : 

As,  pars  cedere,  alii  inseqni ;  neqne  signa  neque  ordines  observare ; 
ubi  qnemque  perlcnlum  ceperat,  ibi  resistere  ac  propnlsari ;  arma,  tela, 
eqni,  viri,  hostes,  elves  permixti ;  nihil  consilio  neqne  imperio  agi ; 
fors  omnia  regere,  some  were  retiring,  others  pursuing ;  keeping  neither 
to  their  standards  nor  their  ranks;  where  peril  encountered  each  man, 
there  was  he  resisting  and  repelling ;  arms,  darts,  steeds,  men,  foes,  country- 
men intermingled;  nothing  was  proceeding  by  counsel  or  command; 
chance  directed  everything. 

1.  This  is  an  absolute  use  of  the  infinitive.    In  time  it  is  not  always 
past,  but  sometimes  present  or  general. 

2.  The  historic  infinitive  is  frequent  in  animated  description.    Only 
the  present  tense  is  used,  except  in  praeteritives :  as,  odisse,  meminisse. 

244.   SPECIAL   USES  OF  THE  INFINITIVE. 

1.  The  poets  sometimes  use  the  infinitive  after  verbs  to  express  purpose 
or  destination :  as,  pecus  egit  altos  vlsere  monies ;  fruges  consumere 
nati ;  loricam  donat  habere  viro. 


THE  INFINITIVE  MOOD.  235 

2.  The  infinitive  sometimes  follows  nouns :  as,  tempus  est  jam  majora 
oonari. 

3.  In  poetry  and  later  prose  the  infinitive  sometimes  follows  adjectives : 
as,  cantare  perlti ;  niveus  videri. 

4.  The  infinitive  is  very  rarely  dependent  on  prepositions :  as,  multum 
interest  inter  dare  et  accipere. 

245.   PERSONAL   CONSTRUCTION  OF  PASSIVES  FOR 
IMPERSONAL. 

Instead  of  an  impersonal  passive  of  a  verb  of  saying,  relating,  thinking, 
believing,  finding,  perceiving,  commanding,  or  forbidding,  or  of  the  verb 
videri,  followed  by  an  accusative  with  the  infinitive,  a  personal  construc- 
tion is  preferred,  what  would  be  the  accusative  being  made  the  subject  of 
the  passive  verb,  and  the  infinitive  subjoined :  as,  lectitavisse  Platonem 
Demosthenes  dlcitur,  it  is  said  that  Demosthenes  read  Plato  eagerly; 
malum  mini  videtur  esse  mors,  it  seems  to  me  that  death  is  an  evil ; 
videris  mini  satis  bene  attendere,  it  seems  to  me  that  you  are  sufficiently 
heedful. 

1.  The  personal  form  instead  of  the  impersonal  is  sometimes  found  also 
in  scrlbor,  demonstror,  audior,  intellegor,  and  other  verbs.    It  is  the 
regular  construction  with  jubeor,  vetor,  and  videor.    Poets  and  later 
writers  extend  this  usage  widely. 

2.  Videor  has  a  similar  personal  use  in  a  parenthesis  with  ut :  as,  ut 
mihi  videbar,  as  it  seemed  to  me. 

3.  With  verbs  of  saying  and  thinking,  the  impersonal  form  is  more  usual 
in  the  compound  tenses :  as,  traditum  est  Homerum  caecum  fuisse. 

246.    TENSES  OF  THE  INFINITIVE. 

The  Tenses  in  the  Infinitive  represent  time  as  present,  past, 
or  future,  relatively  to  the  time  of  the  principal  verb  in  the  clause. 

1.  The  perfect  infinitive  is  found  as  the  object  of  a  verb  : 

a.  When  it  is  important  to  speak  of  the  action  or  event  as  already  done 
or  ready :  as,  non  potest  non  optasse,  she  cannot  revoke  the  wish  already 
made;  but  non  potuit  non  optare,  she  could  not  help  wishing ;  malui  di- 
xisse,  /  preferred  to  have  done  with  speaking,  i.e.,  to  say  no  more;  but 
malui  dlcere,  /  preferred  speaking ;  debeo  vloisse,  I  ought  to  be  pro- 
nounced winner. 

b.  .When  the  perfect  is  used  like  the  Greek  aorist.    This  conveys  no  idea 
of  time,  either  as  past  or  as  continuing,  but  denotes  a  simple  occurrence  of 
the  action.    It  is  found  in  the  oldest  Latin  and  in  Plautus  and  Terence, 
and  was  revived  subsequently  under  Greek  influence,  as  in  Livy  and  the 
Augustan  poets.    It  is  not  found  in  Caesar,  Cicero,  Sallust,  and  Tacitus. 


236  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

Verg. :  magnum  si  pectore  possit  excussisse  deum ;  Horat. :  sunt  qui  nolint 
tetigisse. 

2.  But  commentators  have  sometimes  rashly  called  perfects  infinitive 
aoristic,  when  they  are  true  perfects  and  denote  completed  past  time. 

3.  English  and  Latin  idiom  differ  in  the  tense  of  the  infinitive  after  verbs 
denoting  power,  duty,  permission.     In  Latin  the  time  is  marked  by  the 
verb  in  the  indicative,  and  the  present  infinitive  is  used,  unless  the  action 
is  to  be  stated  as  over  before  the  time  to  which  the  leading  verb  refers :  as, 
mini  Ire  licet,  /  may  go ;  mini  Ire  licuit,  /  might  have  gone ;  facere 
debeo,  I  ought  to  do  it ;  facere  debui,  I  ought  to  have  done  it. 

4.  Memini  is  used  with  the  present  (and  sometimes  the  perfect)  infinitive 
of  events  at  which  the  speaker  himself  was  present :  as,  memini  Pamphy- 
lum  mini  narrare,  /  remember  Pamphylus's  telling  me.    So  sometimes  after 
such  expressions  as  memoria  teneo,  scrlbit,  accepimus. 

5.  For  the  future  infinitive,  both  active  and  passive,  the  periphrase  fore 
ut  or  futurum  esse  ut  is  often  used. 

6.  Fore  with  the  perfect  participle,  in  deponent  and  passive  verbs,  cor- 
responds to  the  future  perfect. 

7.  In  the  compound  infinitive,  the  participle  often  is  alone  expressed, 
and  esse  or  fuisse  omitted. 

THE   IMPERATIVE. 

247.  1.  The  Imperative  Present  commands  or  entreats : 

As,  perge  quo  coepisti,  egredere  ex  urbe,  proficiscere,  proceed  on  your 
chosen  path,  quit  the  city,  go  forth;  pergite,  adulescentes,  atque  in  id 
studium  in  quo  estis  incumbite,  go  on,  young  men,  and  devote  yourselves 
to  that  study  on  which  you  are  engaged. 

2.  The  Imperative  Future  may  either  entreat  or  command ;  but  it  oftener 
commands,  and  is  used  especially  in  legal  formularies:  as,  cum  faciam 
vitula  pro  frugibus,  ipse  venlto,  when  I  shall  be  sacrificing  a  calf  for  the 
crops,  do  you  come  yourself;  regio  imperio  duo  sunto,  there  shall  be  two 
magistrates  with  royal  pmcer. 

Note. — The  imperative  future  often  puts  a  command  in  connection  with 
some  other  action,  and  denotes  that  something  is  to  be  done  in  future  when, 
or  as  soon  as,  something  else  takes  place  or  has  taken  place :  as  in  the  first 
example  above,  and,  cum  valetudini  tuae  consulueris,  turn  consulito  na- 
vigation!. 

3.  The  second  person  of  the  Future  Indicative  may  be  substituted  for 
the  imperative  in  familiar  style,  in  affirmative  sentences,  and  the  third 
person  of  the  Present  Subjunctive  in  advice  or  exhortation.    The  second 
person  of  the  Present  Subjunctive  may  be  used  of  an  indefinite  subject. 

4.  Ne  with  the  Imperative  Present  is  found  in  poetry,  but 


IMPERATIVE  MOOD.— PARTICIPLES.  237 

is  rare  in  prose.    It  is  used  in  legal  forms  with  the  Imperative 
Future : 

As,  equo  ne  credite ;  hominem  mortuum  in  urbe  ne  sepellto  neve  urito, 
thou  shalt  not  bury  or  burn. 

5.  Instead  of  the  negative  imperative,  we  may  have  the  second  person 
of  the  Future  Indicative  with  non,  the  second  person  of  the  Perfect  Sub- 
junctive with  ne,  and  the  third  person  of  the  Present  or  (rarely)  the  Per- 
fect Subjunctive  with  ne :  as,  non  facies ;  ne  transieris  Iberum ;  ilium 
jocum  ne  sis  aspernatus ;  puer  telum  ne  habeat ;  capessite  rempublicam, 
neque  quemquam  metus  ceperit. 

Note  1.— The  second  person  of  the  present  subjunctive  may  be  used, 
both  affirmatively  and  negatively,  when  the  subject  is  indefinite :  as,  isto 
bono  ut3re,  dum  adsit,  cum  absit,  ne  requlras. 

Note  2. — As  not  is  expressed  by  ne,  so  is  nor  by  neve  or  neu.  But  non 
and  neque  or  nee  are  sometimes  found  in  the  poets.  The  non,  however, 
often  serves  rather  to  qualify  a  single  word  in  the  sentence. 

6.  Periphrases  of  the  imperative  are  made  by  fac,  fac  ut,  curaut,  velim, 
with  the  subjunctive,  and  in  poetry  by  memento  with  the  subjunctive  or 
the  infinitive ;  and  negatively  by  fac  ne,  cave,  nolim,  with  the  subjunc- 
tive, by  noli,  and  in  poetry  parce,  mitte,  omitte,  absiste,  fuge,  and  similar 
words  with  the  infinitive :  magnum  fac  animum  habeas,  mind  you  have 
a  lofty  spirit ;  cura  ut  valeas,  take  care  of  your  health  ;  aequam  memento 
servare  mentem,  remember  to  keep  an  even  mind ;  cave  facias,  beware  of 
doing  it;  hoc  nolim  me  jocari  putes,  I  would  not  have  you  think  I  say  this 
in  jest ;  nolite  id  velle  quod  fieri  non  potest,  do  not  wish  what  cannot  be ; 
mitte  sectari,  search  not;  fuge  suspicari,  do  not  suspect. 

7.  Imperative  phrases  are  softened  by  the  polite  expressions  sis  (=  si 
vis),  sultis,  sodes,  amabo,  etc.,  please,  pray :  as,  refer  te,  sis,  ad  verita- 
tem ;  hoc  agite  sultis ;  id  agite,  amabo. 

8.  An  imperative  of  the  perfect  passive  is  found,  though  very  rarely : 
as,  admoniti  este,  Ov.,  and  Caesar's  famous  cry,  jacta  alea  esto ! 

PARTICIPLES,  GERUNDS,  AND  SUPINES. 

248.  Active  participles  govern  the  same  cases  as  their 
verbs : 

As,  amans  virtutem;  faventes  rebus  Carthaginiensium ;  catulorum 
obllta  leaena ;  arcens  reditu  tyrannum ;  utendum  est  aetate. 

249.  Participles  represent  time  as  present,  past,  or  future, 
relatively  to  the-  time  of  the  principal  verb  : 

As,  Plato  scrlbens  mortuus  est,  Plato  died  while  writing ;  Alexander, 
Persidis  fines  aditurus,  urbem  Archelao  tradidit,  Alexander,  when  about 


238  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

to  enter  the  borders  of  Persia,  gave  up  the  city  to  Archelaus ;  pleraeque 
scribuntur  orationes  habitae  jam,  non  ut  habeantur,  most  speeches  are 
written  after  being  delivered,  etc. 

1.  The  future  participle   sometimes  denotes  purpose:  as,  Alexander 
Hephaestionem  in  regionem  Bactrianam  misit,  commeatus  in   hiemem 
paraturum,  Alexander  sent  Hephaestion  into  the  Bactrian  country  to  get 
provisions  for  the  winter.    See  §  253,  n. 

2.  The  want  of  a  present  passive  participle  is  supplied  by  a  passive  verb 
with  a  relative  or  particle :  as,  pueri,  qui  docentur,  discunt  (or  cum  do- 
centur,  dum  docentur),  children  learn  by  being  taught. 

3.  There  being  no  participle  corresponding  to  the  English  perfect  active, 
except  in  deponent  verbs,  its  want  is  supplied  by  an  active  verb,  with  a 
relative  or  particle,  or  by  an  ablative  absolute  passive :  as,  Tarquinium 
regem  qui  non  tulerim,  Sicinium  feram,  having  refused  to  endure  Tarquin 
as  king,  shall  I  endure  Sicinius  ?    Alexander,  cum  interemisset  Clitum, 
vix  a  se  manus  abstinuit,  Alexander,  having  slain  Clitus,  hardly  abstained 
from  suicide;  Pompeius,  captis  Hierosolymis,  victor  ex  illo  iano  nihil 
attigit,  Pompey,  having  taken  Jerusalem,  in  the  very  moment  of  victory, 
meddled  with  nothing  belonging  to  that  temple. 

4.  The  want  of  a  future  passive  participle  is  supplied  by  a  verb  with  a 
relative :  as,  grata  super  veniet  quae  non  sperabitur  hora. 


250.    THE  CIRCUMSTANTIAL  PARTICIPLE. 

Participles  are  often  used  to  denote  the  circumstances  of  an 
action,  such  as  time,  cause,  manner,  means,  purpose,  condition, 
concession  : 

As,  Herculem  Germani  ituri  in  proelia  canunt,  the  Germans  when  about 
to  march  to  battle  chant  Hercules ;  Hephaestio  longe  omnium  amicorum 
carissimus  erat  Alexandro,  cum  ipso  pariter  educatus,  of  all  his  friends  He- 
phaestion was  by  far  the  dearest  to  Alexander,  because  he  had  been  brought 
up  with  him;  aer  effluens  hue  et  illuc  ventos  efficit,  the  air  by  flowing  this 
way  and  that  produces  the  winds ;  mllites,  pilis  missis,  phalangem  hostium 
perfregerunt,  the  soldiers  by  hurling  their  javelins  broke  through  the  pha- 
lanx of  the  enemy ;  Catilma  ad  exercitum  proficiscitur,  signa  illaturus  urbi, 
Catiline  goes  to  the  army,  intending  to  march  on  the  city;  epistulae  offen- 
dunt,  non  loco  redditae,  letters  annoy,  if  not  delivered  in  season  ;  scripta 
tua  jam  diu  exspectans,  non  audeo  tamen  flagitare,  though  I  have  long  been 
looking  for  your  writings,  yet  I  dare  not  demand  them. 

1.  Clauses  of  concession  are  sometimes  called  adversative. 

2.  Nisi,  etsi,  quamquam,  quamvis,  quasi,  may  be  found  with  participial 
conditional  and  adversative  clauses,  especially  in  later  writers. 


SOME  PARTICIPIAL   CONSTRUCTIONS.  239 

251,   SOME  PARTICIPIAL   CONSTRUCTIONS. 

1.  Participles  may  be  used  instead  of  a  relative  clause :  as,  PIsistratus 
Homeri  libros,  confuses  antea,  disposuit,  Pisistratus  arranged  the  books 
of  Homer,  which  were  heretofore  confused. 

2.  The  English  idiom  "  without,"  followed  by  a  participle  or  verbal  noun, 
is  often  represented  in  Latin  by  the  participle  accompanied  by  some  neg- 
ative expression :  as,  Natura  dedit  usuram  vitae,  tamquam  pecuniae,  nulla 
praestituta  die,  Nature  has  given  the  loan  of  life,  as  it  were  of  money, 
without  fixing  any  day  for  repayment. 

3.  In  such  forms  as  hoc  cognitum  habeo,  and  the  corresponding  expres- 
sion in  Greek,  we  see  the  origin  of  the  perfect  tense  in  modern  languages, 
as  made  up  of  the  auxiliary  have  and  the  past  participle.    But  in  the  clas- 
sical languages  the  have  is  used  in  its  full  sense  of  present  possession,  and 
is  no  mere  auxiliary.    Besides  habeo,  teneo  and  possideo  and  other  verbs 
are  used  in  the  same  way  with  perfect  passive  participles. 

4.  The  Perfect  Participle  is  elegantly  used  when  in  English 
we  should  have  a  verbal  noun  : 

As,  anno  urbis  conditae,  in  the  year  from  the  building  of  the  city; 
Prusiam  regem  suspectum  Romanis  et  receptus  Hannibal  et  bellum  ad- 
versus  Eumenem  motum  faciebat,  both  the  reception  of  Hannibal  and  the 
beginning  of  war  against  Eumenes  made  king  Prusias  an  object  of  sus- 
picion to  the  Romans. 

Note.— Livy,  Tacitus,  and  Lucan  use  the  neuter  of  the  perfect  passive 
participle  as  a  passive  verbal  noun. 

5.  Still  more  frequently  is  the  Gerundive  used  where  we 
use  a  noun  : 

As,  de  urbe  tradenda,  concerning  the  delivery  of  the  city ;  temperantia 
constat  ex  praetermittendis  voluptatibus,  temperance  consists  in  absti- 
nence from  bodily  pleasures ;  ante  conditam  condendamve  urbem,  before 
the  actual  or  designed  foundation  of  the  city. 

6.  A  Participle  and  Verb  are  often  best  translated  by  two  verbs:  as, 
Caesar  scribit  se  cum  legionibus  profectum  celeriter  adfore,  Caesar  writes 
word  that  he  has  set  out  with  his  legions  and  will  soon  arrive. 

7.  A  Participial  construction  is  often  involved  with  an  indirect  question 
or  a  relative  clause,  so  that  it  can  hardly  be  translated  without  periphrase : 
as,  cogitate  quantis  laboribus  fundatum  imperium,  quanta  virtute  sta- 
billtam  llbertatem  una  nox  paene  delerit,  think  how  vast  the  toil  that 
founded  this  empire,  how  great  the  valor  that  established  this  freedom, 
which  a  single  night  all  but  destroyed. 

8.  The  nouns  man,  men,  things,  are  frequently  understood  with  Parti- 
ciples :  as,  beatos  puto,  quibus  datum  est  aut  facere  scribenda  aut  scribere 


240  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

loquenda,  I  deem  them  blest,  to  whom -it  has  been  given  either  to  do  things 
worthy  to  be  written,  or  to  write  things  worthy  to  be  spoken  of;  grande 
locuturi  nebulas  Helicone  legunto,  let  those  that  would  utter  a  sublime 
strain  cull  mists  on  Helicon. 

9.  Some  Participles  are  sometimes  used  as  Adjectives  :  such  are  negle- 
gens,  patiens,  sapiens,  doctus,  horrendus,  tremendus,  venerandus,  etc. 

10.  Some  Participles  are  sometimes  used  as  Nouns :  such  are  amans, 
adulescens,  sponsus,  nupta,  sponsa,  coeptum,  dictum,  factum,  praece- 
ptum,  etc.     Neuter  Participles  so  used  are  sometimes  modified  by  Adverbs : 
as,  verum  est  fortes  et  sapientes  viros  non  tarn  praemia  sequi  solere  recte 
factotum  quam  ipsa  recta  facta. 

GERUNDS   AND    GERUNDIVES. 

252.  Gerunds  govern  the  same  case  as  their  verbs  : 

As,  spes  satisfaciendi  reipublicae ;  et  agendi  aliquid  et  dlligendi  aliquos 
principia  in  nobis  continemus ;  parsimonia  est  ars  re  familiar!  moderate 
utendi. 

1.  A  transitive  gerund  in  classic  authors  seldom  takes  an  accusative  ex- 
cept of  pronouns  or  neuter  plural  adjectives :  as,  aliquid,  multa,  omnia, 
etc.    But  it  may  do  so  for  the  sake  of  rhythm  or  perspicuity :  as,  salutem 
hominibus  dando. 

2.  Instead  of  the  Gerund  with  its  object  in  the  Accusative, 
the  Gerundive  is  generally  used,  the  Gerundive  taking  the 
gender  and  number  of  its  object,  and  the  object  taking  the 
case  of  the  Gerund  : 

As,  tuendae  urbis,  of  protecting  the  city  (for  tuendi  urbem) ;  ad  llbe- 
randos  elves,  for  freeing  the  citizens  (for  ad  ITberandum  elves). 

Note. — This  is  the  substitution  of  a  passive  for  an  active  construction  : 
thus,  for  consilium  scrlbendi  epistulam,  the  design  of  writing  a  letter,  we 
have  more  frequently  consilium  scrlbendae  epistulae,  lit.  th'e  design  of  a 
letter  to  be  written. 

3.  The  Gerund  is  preferred  where  the  Gerundive  would  cause  an  am- 
biguity as  to  gender. 

4.  The  Genitive  of  Gerunds  and  Gerundives  defines  Nouns  and  Adjec- 
tives :  as,  ars  canendi ;  scientia  civitatis  regendae ;  cupidus  audiendi. 

5.  The  Genitive  of  a  Gerund  is  sometimes  found  governing  a  Genitive 
case  instead  of  an  Accusative :  as,  facultas  agrorum  latronibus  donandi. 

6.  The  Genitive  of  the  Gerund  and  Gerundive  in  the  predicate  after  esse 
sometimes  denotes  the  purpose  which  a  thing  serves  or  the  end  to  which  it 
tends :  as,  regium  imperium  initio  conservandae  llbertatis  atque  augendae 


GERUNDS  AND  GERUNDIVES.         241 

libertatis  fuerat ;  tribuni  plebis  concordiam  ordinum  timent,  quam  dissol- 
vendae  maxime  tribuniciae  potestatis  rentur  esse. 

7.  In  a  few  writers,  especially  later  ones,  the  Genitive  of  the  Gerund  or 
Gerundive  is  used  to  denote  the  purpose  of  an  action  :  as,  Germanicus  in 
Aegyptum  proficiscitur  cognoscendae  antiquitatis.   In  better  Latin  causa 
or  gratia  is  added. 

8.  The  genitives  of  the  personal  pronouns,  mei,  tui,  etc.,  being  really 
genitives  of  the  neuter  adjective  pronoun,  with  them  the  Gerundive  is  used 
without  variation  for  gender  and  number :  as,  sui  conservandi ;  sui  colli- 
gendi  facultas,  the  power  of  collecting  themselves  together ;  vestri  adhor- 
tandi  causa,  for  the  sake  of  exhorting  you. 

9.  The  Dative  of  Gerunds  and  Gerundives  is  used  after  adjectives  which 
take  a  dative,  and  sometimes  after  nouns  and  verbs  to  express  the  purpose 
or  design:  as,  aqua  nitrosa  utilis  est  bibendo,  nitrous  water  is  useful  for 
drinking;  studere  revocandis  regibus,  to  plot  for  recalling  the  kings. 

1.  To  express  purpose,  the  Accusative  of  the  Gerund  or  Gerundive  with 
ad,  or  ut  with  the  subjunctive,  is  more  common  in  Cicero. 

2.  The  adjectives  and  verbs  or  phrases  most  used  with  the    Dative  of 
Gerunds  and  Gerundives  are  utilis,  inutilis,  noxius,  aptus,  idoneus,  par ; 
studere,  intentum  esse,  tempus  impendere  or  consumere  or  insumere, 
praeesse,  operam  dare,  diem  dicere,  locum  capere,  sufficere,  satis  esse, 
deesse,  and  esse  in  the  sense  of  serving  for  or  being  adequate  to. 

3.  The  following  are  examples  of  the  predicative  use  after  esse :  quae 
diutinae  obsidioni  tolerandae  erant,  the  things  which  were  serviceable  for 
enduring  a  long  siege;  divites,  qui  oneri  ferendo  erant,  the  rich,  who  were 
able  to  bear  the  burden;  solvendo  non  eras,  you  were  insolvent  (lit.,  not 
adequate  for  paying,  not  able  to  pay). 

10.  The  purpose  of  an  office  is  stated  in  the  Dative :  as,  triumvir  divi- 
dendis  agris,  one  of  the  three  commissioners  to  divide  the  lands ;  tresviri 
rei  publicae  constituendae. 

11.  The  Accusative  of  Gerunds  and  Gerundives  is  governed  by  preposi- 
tions :  most  commonly  ad  or  inter  ;  sometimes  ante,  circa,  in,  ob,  or  post : 
as,  haec  ad  judicandum  sunt  facillima ;  magna  summa  erogata  est  in  servos 
armandos. 

Note.— Instead  of  the  accusative  gerund  with  a  direct  object,  the  ge- 
rundive construction  is  always  used:  as,  missus  est.  ad  animos  regurn 
perspiciendos. 

12.  The  Accusative  of  the  Gerundive,  agreeing  with  an  object,  is  used 
after  such  verbs  as  do,  trado,  conduce,  loco,  propono,  euro,  habeo,  to  denote 
purpose :  as,  ediscendos  fastos  populo  proposuit,  he  published  the  calendar 
for  the  people  to  learn  by  heart ;  Caesar  pontem  in  Arare  faciundum  curat. 
(On  the  Accusative  with  ad,  see  g  252,  9,  1.) 

Note.— If  the  governing  verb  is  put  in  the  passive,  the  gerundive  be- 
comes a  predicate  nominative. 

21  Q 


242  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

13.  The  Ablative  of  Gerunds  and  Gerundives  is  used  of  means,  manner, 
or  cause,  or  is  governed  by  ab,  de,  ex,  or  in,  rarely  pro,  and  very  rarely 
super  :  as,  Caesar  dando  gloriam  adeptus  est ;  hodie  stat  Asia  Luculli  insti- 
tutis  servandis ;  de  contemnenda  morte ;  in  accusando  atque  in  explican- 
dis  crlminibus  operam  consumpsi. 

Note.  The  ablative  gerund  is  rarely  used  with  a  direct  object  depending 
on  it,  unless  it  be  a  neuter  pronoun  :  as,  ndmen  legis  Graece  a  suum  cuique 
tribuendo  ductum  est. 

14.  The  neuter  Gerundive  may  be  used  impersonally,  either  without 
case,  or  with  the  dative  or  ablative:  as,  bibendum  est,  we  must  drink ; 
serviendum  est  legibus,  it  is  right  to  comply  with  the  laws;  utendum  est 
aetate. 

Note  1. — This  is  called  by  some  grammarians  the  nominative  of  the 
Gerund. 

Note  2.— In  old  Latin  an  object  in  the  accusative  is  found :  as,  aeternas 
quoniam  paenas  in  morte  timendumst. 

15.  Transitive  verbs  have  a  personal  gerundive  construction  :  as,  aqua 
bibenda  est. 

16.  The  Gerundive  often  takes  a  dative  of  the  person  concerned  or  to 
whom  the  action  is  related :  as,  moriendum  est  omnibus.   (§  157,  1.)    An 
ablative  of  the  agent  with  ab  may  be  used,  if  required  for  perspicuity. 

17.  The  Gerundive  when  used  attributively  implies  obligation, 
destiny,  or  desert;  and  in  negative  sentences  it  sometimes  ap- 
proaches the  meaning  of  possibility : 

As,  venerandus  a  nobis  et  colendus  est,  he  should  be  worshipped  and 
honored;  delenda  est  Karthago,  Carthage  must  be  destroyed;  labores  aut 
jam  exhaustos  aut  mox  exhauriendos,  destined  soon  to  be  spent ;  vix  erat 
credendum,  it  could  scarcely  be  believed;  labores  non  fugiendos,  that  can- 
not be  shunned. 

SUPINES. 

253,  ACCUSATIVE  SUPINE. 

The  accusative  supine,  after  verbs  expressing  or  implying 
motion,  denotes  purpose : 

As,  lusum  it  Maecenas,  dormltum  ego,  Maecenas  goes  off  to  play  ball,  I 
to  go  to  bed. 

Note. — Purpose  is  more  often  expressed  in  other  ways :  thus,  for  eunt 
consultum  Apollinem,  we  may  have  ut  consulerent,  qui  consulerent,  ad 
consulendum,  consulendi  causa,  and,  less  frequently,  consulturi. 

1.  This  supine  may  govern  a  case :  as,  Hannibal  defensum  patriam 
revdcatus  est,  to  defend  his  country. 


SUPINES.— PARTICLES.  243 

2.  The  implication  of  motion  is  sometimes  only  indirect :  as,  coctum  con- 
ductus  sum,  I  was  hired  to  cook. 

3.  Ire  with  the  accusative  supine  means  to  set  about :  as,  ultum  Ire,  to 
set  about  to  revenge.    Hence  the  use  of  the  impersonal  passive  infinitive 
Tri  with  the  supine  to  make  a  passive  infinitive  future  :  as,  audierat  non 
datum  Tri  filio  uxorem,  lit.,  that  there  is  not  a  going  to  give  a  wife  to  his 
son,  i.  e.  that  a  wife  will  not  be  given  to  his  son. 

254.  ABLATIVE  SUPINE. 

The  supine  in  -u  is  an  ablative  of  specification.  It  limits 
fas,  nefas,  opus,  and  adjectives  meaning  good  or  evil,  easy  or 
difficult,  pleasant  or  unpleasant,  fit  or  unfit : 

As,  nefas  visu,  (horrible  in  the  seeing)  horrible  to  behold;  turpe  diotu, 
(shameful  in  the  saying)  shameful  to  say. 

1.  The  ablative  supine  is  found  rarely  after  verbs :  as,  pudet  dictu,  Tac. 

2.  The  supine  in  -u  is  found  very  rarely  as  an  ablative  of  separation : 
as,  vilicus  primus  oubitu  surgat,  postremus  cubitum  eat  (Cato). 

PARTICLES. 

255.  ADVERBS. 

1.  Adverbs  qualify  verbs,  adjectives,  participles,  and  sometimes 
other  adverbs : 

As,  prudenter  agit ;  male  salsus ;  domus  celeriter  exstructa ;  satis  bene. 

2.  Adverbs  sometimes  qualify  nouns,  but  very  rarely,  and  only  when  the 
noun  is  used  as  an  adjective  or  participle,  or  when  a  participle  is  under- 
stood :  as,  admodum  puer,  very  much  like  a  boy,  very  young;  late  rex 
(=  late  regnaus);  gravibus  superne  ictibus,  blows  coming  from  above; 
circa  clvitatum  (of  states  round  about),  of  neighboring  states. 

256.    TWO  NEGATIVES. 
Two  negatives  destroy  each  other  : 
As,  nulla  non  arte  petitus,  sought  by  every  art  (with  no  art  untried). 

1.  Not  only  does  non  before  a  negative  word  (as  nemo,  nunquam,  nescio) 
make  it  affirmative,  but  neque  gets  the  affirmative  sense  of  et  when  fol- 
lowed by  a  negative  word  in  the  same  proposition :  as,  neque  haec  non 
evenerunt,  and  this  came  to  pass  indeed. 

2.  Non  followed  by  ne— quidem  remains  negative :  as,  non  fugio  ne  hos 
quidem  mores,  /  do  not  shun  even  this  character.    So  neque— neque,  neve 
—neve,  following  a  negative  leading  proposition,  are  translated  like  aut— 
aut.    Ne  non  after  vide  must  be  rendered  by  whether. 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

3.  Non  modo,  or  non  solum,  is  used  before  sed  ne— quidem,  or  sed  vix, 
where  at  first  thought  we  should  expect  to  find  non  modo  non,  non  solum 
non.    The  negation  in  ne— quidem  belongs  conjointly  to  both  clauses;  or 
we  may  say,  with  Herzog,  that  it  changes  the  affirmation  of  the  verb  to  ne- 
gation. 

4.  In  a  few  cases  two  negatives  strengthen  the  negation,  as  in  Greek :  an 
exceptional  usage,  from  the  language  of  common  life. 

257.    CONJUNCTIONS. 

1.  Co-ordinative  conjunctions  (g  101,  2)  connect  words  or 
clauses  which  are  on  an  equality  with  each  other. 

2.  In  quick  and  lively  discourse  the  copulative  conjunctions  are  some- 
times omitted.    This  is  called  asyndeton. 

3.  Three  or  more  co-ordinate  words  may  be  connected  each  with  the 
preceding  by  a  conjunction ;  or  the  conjunction  may  be  omitted  entirely ; 
or  it  may  be  omitted  between  the  first  members  and  que  annexed  to  the 
last.    Thus  we  may  say  fides  et  constantia  et  justitia,  or  fides,  constan- 
tia,  justitia,  or  fides,  constantia,  justitiaque. 

4.  Two  words  essentially  different  in  meaning  are  separated  by  aut. 
Vel  (for  velis,  choose  you)  denotes  a  distinction  which  is  of  no  great  im- 
portance, or  relates  only  to  the  choice  of  an  expression. 

5.  The  meaning  of  -ve  is  similar  to  that  of  vel.   With  numerals  it  means 
or  at  most:  as,  bis  terve,  twice  or  (at  most)  three  times ;  while  bis  terque 
means  two  or  three  times  (at  least). 

6.  When  two  words  are  united  by  a  conjunction,  which  stands  also  before 
the  first,  withoufconnecting  it  with  a  preceding  word,  the  first  et  is  trans- 
lated both,  the  first  aut  or  vel,  either,  the  first  sive,  whether,  the  first  nee 
or  neque,  neither.    So  cum  . . .  turn,  may  be  rendered  by  not  only  . . .  but. 
also;  both  . . .  and;  tnm  . . .  turn,  at  one  time  . .  .at  another  time. 

7.  After  words  of  likeness,  ac  and  atque  signify  a*;  after  words  of  un- 
likeness,  than,  or  sometimes  from  or  to. 

8.  Subordinative  Conjunctions  (\  101,  3)  connect  a  secondary  clause  to 
a  primary  or  leading  clause. 

258.   INTERROGATIVE  PARTICLES. 

1.  In  simple  questions,  -ne  asks  only  for  information ; 
nonne  expects  the  answer  yes ;  num  expects  the  answer  no  : 

As,  sentisne,  do  you  feel?  nonne  sentis,  do  you  not  feel?  num  sentis, 
do  you  feel  ?  you  do  not  feel,  do  you  ? 

2.  Ne  is  appended  to  the  emphatic  word.    It  remains  true  that  the  par- 
ticle itself  does  not  imply  either  an  affirmati  ve  or  a  negative  answer,  although 
this  emphasis  sometimes  gives  a  rhetorical  effect  similar  to  that  of  num  or 


INTERROGATIVE  PARTICLES.  245 

nonne :  as,  potestne  virtus  servlre,  is  it  possible  that  virtue  should  be  en- 
slaved ?  ( No. )  Mene  istud  potuisse  facere  putas,  do  you  believe  that  /  would 
have  done  that  ?  (Certainly  not.)  Videsne,  ut  in  proverbio  sit  ovorum  inter 
se  similitude,  do  you  see,  where  he  might  have  said,  do  you  not  see  f 

3.  In  conversational  language,  the  final  e  in  -ne  is  often  omitted:  as 
nostin,  tun ;  also  a  preceding  s  in  some  verbs :  as,  ain,  scin,  viden,  audin, 
for  aisne,  etc. 

4.  Rarely  in  poetry,  ne  is  appended  to  interrogative  adjectives,  and  even 
to  the  relative  pronoun. 

5.  Questions  are  sometimes  found  without  any  interrogative  particle  or 
pronoun.    They  generally  denote  surprise  or  some  strong  feeling,  or  are 
purposely  abrupt. 

6.  In  alternative  questions,  utrum  or  -ne  are  generally 
used  in  the  first  member  of  the  sentence,  and  an  in  the  second 
and  subsequent  clauses  : 

As,  utrum  nescis  quam  alte  escenderis,  an  pro  nihilo  id  putas  ?  vosne 
L.  Domitium,  an  vos  Domitius  deseruit? 

7.  Sometimes  there  is  no  interrogative  particle  in  the  first  clause,  and  the 
second  has  an  or  (chiefly  in  indirect  questions)  -ne :  as,  eloquar ,  an  sileam  ? 
nihil  interesse  nostra  putamus,  valeamus  aegrlne  slums. 

8.  Utrumne  is  sometimes  found  for  utrum,  anne  for  an. 

9.  Ne  . .  .  ne,  an ...  an,  are  rare,  and  found  chiefly  in  the  poets ;  utrum 
. . .  ne,  very  rare. 

10.  Or  not  is  annon,  rarely  necne,  in  direct  questions,  necne,  rarely  an- 
non,  in  indirect :  as,  sortietur,  an  non  *  sunt  haec  tua  verba,  necne  T  dii 
utrum  sint,  necne,  quaeritur. 

11.  Those  are  not  alternative  (or  disjunctive)  questions  in  which  aut  is 
interposed,  and  not  an :  as,  quid  ergo,  solem  dlcam  aut  lunam  aut  caelum 
deum,  what  then,  shall  I  apply  the  name  of  God  to  the  sun  or  moon  or  sky  f 
Here  there  is  no  real  opposition,  but  the  three  terms  may  all  be  equally 
affirmed  or  denied. 

12.  The  old  construction,  utrum,  which  of  the  two  f  has  after  it  -ne  . . . 
an :  as,  ntrum,  studione  id  sibi  habet,  an  laudi  putat  fore,  si  perdiderit 
gnatum?  (Ter.)    Utrum  erat  utilius,  suisne  servire,  an  populo  Romano 
obtemperare?  (Cic.) 

13.  An  stands  not  only  in  the  second  member  of  a  disjunctive  question, 
but  also  in  simple  questions  used  to  complete  and  emphasize  what  precedes : 
asking,  what  must  be  the  case  otherwise,  or  what  must  be  the  case  then;  or 
answering  a  question  under  the  form  of  a  question  ;  or  adding  in  an  inter- 
rogative form  some  conjecture  respecting  what  is  asked :  as,  necesse  est 
quidquid  pronunties,  id  aut  esse  aut  non  esse.    An  tu  dialecticis  ne  im- 
butus  quidem  es  ?  what  you  put  forward  must  needs  either  be  or  not  be. 
Or  are  you  not  acquainted  with  even  the  first  elements  of  logic  f  sed  ad 

21* 


246  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

haec,  nisi  molestum  est,  habeo  quae  velim.  An  me,  inquam,  nisi  te  audlre 
vellem,  censes  haec  dicturum  fuisse?  do  you,  then,  believe,  etc.  Quid  ais  ! 
an  venit  Pamphilus?  what  do  you  say  f  Has  Pamphilus  come?  nos  hie 
te  exspectamus  ex  quodam  rumore,  an  ex  litteris  tuis  ad  alios  missis,  on 
the  authority  of  some  rumor,  or  (am  I  right  f)  of  letters  of  yours  sent  to 
other  persons. 

14.  In  dependent  clauses  num  means  whetJier,  and  only  asks  the  ques- 
tion ;  si  is  sometimes  found  in  the  sense  of  whether ;  and  so  an  in  later 
writers  and  the  poets. 

15.  After  haud  scio,  nescio,  dubito,  dubium,  or  incertum  est,  and  some 
other  expressions  of  uncertainty,  an  means  whether  not,  and  the  whole  ex- 
pression signifies  perhaps ;  I  am  inclined  to  think  that.     (See  §  231,  4.) 

16.  An  answer  in  the  affirmative  may  be  given  by  etiam,  ita  or  ita  est, 
sic  or  sic  est,  verum,  vero,  factum,  sane,  maxume,  quidni  ?  admodum, 
oppido,  plane,  by  a  personal  pronoun  with  vero,  or  by  the  verb  of  the 
preceding  sentence  repeated. 

17.  An  answer  in  the  negative  may  be  given  by  non,  minume,  nihil 
minus,  ne  . . .  quidem. 

18.  Immo,  nay,  always  corrects  the  preceding  expression ;  but  sometimes 
only  to  substitute  a  stronger  affirmation. 


ORDER   OF  WORDS. 

259.  As  the  connection  and  construction  of  words  in  Latin 
can  be  known  from  their  inflection,  their  position  is  not  de- 
termined by  such  strict  and  definite  rules  as  in  English,  but 
admits  of  great  variety.  That  order  is  to  be  preferred  which 
is  most  easily  understood,  marks  out  the  more  emphatic 
words,  and  gives  an  agreeable  sound  and  rhythm 

The  following  rules  give  some  idea  of  the  normal  or  most 
usual  order.  Many  of  them  may  be  superseded,  however,  by 
the  demands  of  rhythm  or  emphasis. 

1.  The  subject  is  put  first,  its  modifiers  next,  the  verb 
last,  and  the  object  and  other  modifiers  of  the  predicate  are 
put  between : 

As,  ego  te  ob  egregiam  virtutem  semper  amavi ;  cur  ego  tuas  partes 
suscipio  1  cur  M.  Tullius  P.  Africani  monumenta  requirit,  P.  Scipio  eum, 
qui  ilia  sustulit,  defendit  1 

Note.— When  the  subject  is  closely  connected  with  a  clause  following 
the  verb,  it  may  be  placed  after  the  verb. 


ORDER   OF  WORDS.  247 

2.  Poets  use  great  freedom  in  the  order  of  their  words :  as,  Ponitur  ad 
patrios  barbara  praeda  decs.  (Ov.) 

3.  The  Preposition  stands  before  the  noun,  either  immediately,  or  with 
the  interposition  of  such  expressions  only  as  qualify  the  noun :  as,  consul 
de  bello  ad  populum  tulit;  sine  ullo  metu  et  summa  cum  honestate; 
haec  officia  pertinent  ad  earum  rerum,  quibus  utuntur  homines,  facul- 
tatem ;  ad  bene  beateque  vivendum. 

4.  The  preposition  is  sometimes  placed  between  an  adjective  which  is 
emphatic,  or  a  pronoun  (or  rarely  a  genitive  case),  and  the  noun :  as, 
magna  ex  parte ;  tribus  de  rebus ;  paucos  post  menses ;  summa  cum  cnra ; 
ea  de  causa ;  qua  in  urbe ;  quorum  de  virtutibus ;  deorum  in  mente. 

5.  Some  prepositions,  chiefly  dissyllabic,  occasionally  stand  after  a 
relative  pronoun :  as,  is,  quern  contra  venerat.     (See  §  131,  5.)    Cum  is 
always  suffixed  to  personal  and  usually  to  relative  pronouns.     (See  g  57, 
7;  §62,9.) 

6.  The  following  examples  show  the  freedom  often  used  by  the  poets  in 
placing  their  prepositions :  avem  caelo  dejecit  ab  alto ;  foedera  regum  vel 
Gabiis  vel  cum  rigidis  aequata  Sabinis. 

7.  Adverbs,  and  Oblique  Cases  of  nouns  and  adjectives,  stand  before  the 
verb  or  adjective  to  which  they  belong :  as,  bellum  civile  opinione  ple- 
rumque  et  fama  gubernatur;  multi  autem,  Gnathonum  similes,  sunt 
loco,  fortuna,  fama  superiores. 

Note  1. — Adverbs  may  be  placed  for  emphasis  at  the  beginning  or  end 
of  the  sentence ;  and  they  may  be  inserted  without  emphasis  between  the 
more  prominent  words. 

Note  2. — Adverbs  which  qualify  an  adjective  or  another  adverb  almost 
always  stand  before  it.  But  admodum  can  be  placed  after  an  adjective 
which  is  emphatic.  An  adverb  of  degree  (as  multo)  may  stand  for  emphasis 
at  the  beginning  of  the  clause  or  sentence,  and  the  adjective  be  put  farther 
along :  as,  multo  ejus  oratio  esset  pressior. 

8.  Negatives  stand  before  the  word  they  qualify ;  hence  before  the  verb 
(but  not  always  immediately  before  it)  when  they  apply  to  the  whole 
proposition :  as,  non  te  reprehendo,  sed  fortunam ;  intellegere  sane  non 
possum.     Instead  of  non  dico,  nego  is  generally  used :  as,  negavit  eum 
adesse,  he  said  he  was  not  there;  (not,  he  denied,  etc.) 

Note.— Ne  quidem  takes  the  emphatic  word  between  the  two  particles : 
as,  ne  joco  quidem. 

9.  Attributes,  whether  adjectives,  nouns  in  apposition,  or  oblique  cases, 
usually  follow  their  noun ;  but  the  reverse  order  is  frequent,  and  is  the 
rule  with  demonstrative  pronouns  and  adjectives  of  number  and  quan- 
tity :  as,  vir  bonus ;  praemeditatio  rerum  futurarum ;  Balbus  quaestor, 
magno  pondere  auri,  majore  argenti  coacto  de  publico  exactionibus, 
Kal,  Juniis  trajecit  se  in  regnum  Bogudis ;  ejus  disputationis  sententias 
memoriae  mandavi,  quas  hoc  libro  exposui ;  tribus  modis. 


248  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

But  a  demonstrative  may  be  placed  after,  if  it  is  desirable  to  bring  it  into 
close  connection  with  the  relative :  as,  mediocritatem  illam  tenebit,  quae 
est  inter  nimiura  et  parum. 

10.  In  many  expressions  the  order  of  the  words  is  fixed  by  custom :  as, 
populus  Romanus,  civis  Romanus,  res  familiaris,  res  gestae,  aes  alie- 
num,  jus  civile,  senatus  consultum,  magister  equitum,  tribunus  plebi, 
pontifez  maximus,  fiona  Dea,  Jupiter  optimus  maximus,  Carthago  Nova, 
Via  Appia,  terra  marique,  etc.     In  a  few  cases  this  order  is  found  reversed, 
for  emphasis. 

11.  A  monosyllabic  noun  almost  invariably  precedes  a  longer  adjective : 
as,  res  innumerabiles ;  di  immortales ;  rex  potentissimus. 

12.  When  a  noun  is  qualified  by  both  an  adjective  and  a  genitive,  or 
by  both  a  genitive  and  a  prepositional  expression,  the  adjective  in  the 
first  case,  the  genitive  in  the  second  place,  is  usually  put  first,  and  the 
other  attribute  placed  between  that  and  the  noun :  as,  amicitia  nullam 
aetatis  degendae  rationem  patitur  esse  expertem  sui ;  cujus  rationis  vim 
ex  illo  caelesti  Epicuri  de  regula  et  judicio  volumine  accepimus. 

13.  Eelative  pronouns  regularly  stand  at  the  beginning  of  their  clause ; 
never  after  their  verb :  as,  hie  est  quern  quaerimus ;  quae  cum  ita  sint, 
hoc  loquor. 

14.  But  sometimes  an  emphatic  word,  or  words,  is  placed  before  the  rela- 
tive, especially  when  the  demonstrative  sentence  is  put  after  the  relative 
sentence :  as,  Tarentum  vero  qua  vigilantia,  quo  consilio,  (Fabius)  recepit? 
Romam  quae  apportata  sunt,  ad  aedem  Honoris  et  Virtutis  videmus  (to 
Rome,  in  contrast  with  what  remained  at  Syracuse). 

15.  The  relatives  may  be  used  for  the  demonstratives  with  et :  e.  g., 
qui  for  et  is,  qualis  for  et  talis,  quo  for  et  eo.     They  may  therefore  be 
placed  before  those  conjunctions  which  can  be  connected  with  et  or  autem : 
as,  quod  cum  audivissem,  quod  si  fecissem,  quod  quamvis  non  ignorassem, 
for  et  cum  hoc,  et  si  hoc,  et  quamvis  or  cum  autem  hoc. 

16.  Connective  adverbs  and  interrogative  pronouns  usually  stand  at 
the  head  of  their  clause,  or  only  after  words,  such  as  relative  or  demon- 
strative pronouns,  which  refer  to  the  preceding  sentence.    They  never 
come  after  their  verb. 

Note. — But  in  poetry  we  have  freer  position. 

17.  Words  belonging  to  two  or  more  co-ordinate  words  or  expressions 
should  strictly  be  put  either  before  them  all  or  after  them  all.     But,  partly 
for  rhythm's  sake,  the  common  word  is  often  put  after  the  first  of  the  co- 
ordinated words :  as,  jam  viris  vires,  jam  ferro  sua  vis,  jam  consilia  ducibus 
deerant;  an  tu  existimas  fuisse  turn  alios  medicos,  qui  morbis,  alios  qui 
volneribus,  alios  qui  oculis  mederentur  ^ 

Note  1.— In  poetry  irregularities  occur:  as,  pacis  eras  mediusque  belli 
(for  bellique  medius). 
Note  2.— When  the  same  verb  belongs  to  several  clauses,  it  is  more  com- 


ORDER   OF  WORDS.  249 

mon  in  Latin  to  place  it  in  the  last  clause,  and  understand  it  in  those  pre- 
ceding.   The  reverse  is  the  rule  in  English. 

18.  Hiatus,  or  the  concurrence  of  long  vowels  at  the  end  of  one  word 
and  the  beginning  of  another,  should  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible.    A 
concurrence  of  short  vowels,  or  of  a  long  vowel  followed  by  a  short,  is 
not  objectionable. 

19.  The  more  easy  and  familiar  the  style  of  composition,  the  less  formal 
is  the  arrangement  of  the  words. 

20.  The  position  of  the  following  particles  may  be  specially 
noticed : 

Nam,  always,  namque,  almost  always,  stands  at  the  beginning ; 

Enim,  always  after  one  word,  seldom  after  two ; 

Ergo,  therefore,  either  first,  or  after  an  important  word  of  the  sentence : 
as,  hunc  ergo,  quid  ergo ;  when  it  denotes  not  a  conclusion,  but  only 
a  transition,  it  almost  always  stands  after  a  word ; 

Igitur,  usually  after  one  or  two  words,  or  even  after  more  words,  if  they 
are  closely  connected ;  it  is  also  put  first,  especially  in  Sallust ; 

Itaque,  therefore,  consequently,  almost  always  at  the  beginning,  in  good 
prose ; 

Tamen,  at  the  beginning,  except  where  a  single  word  is  to  be  made  em- 
phatic by  antithesis ; 

Etiam,  also,  even,  before  the  word  it  qualifies ;  but  also  after  it,  especially 
if  the  word  is  put  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence  for  the  sake  of  em- 
phasis ; 

Quoque,  quidem,  and  demum,  immediately  after  the  word  they  qualify  ; 

Autem,  and  vero,  after  a  word,  or  two  closely  connected  words:  as,  de 
republica  vero ;  autem,  even  after  several  words,  which  cannot  well  be 


Ne,  assuredly,  is  prefixed  to  a  personal  or  demonstrative  pronoun,  except 
in  a  peculiar  class  of  answers  in  Plautus. 

Note.— If  enim,  autem,  or  igitur,  and  est  or  sunt,  come  near  together, 
the  verb  usually  stands  without  emphasis  in  the  second  place,  if  the  prop- 
osition begins  with  the  emphatic  word :  as,  nemo  est  autem ;  sapientia 
est  enim  una,  quae  maestitiam  pellat  ex  animis.  But  the  verb  is  put  in 
the  third  place,  if  the  emphasis  falls  more  on  the  words  which  come  after 
it:  as,  cupiditates  enim  sunt  insatiabiles. 

21.  The  pronoun  quisque  almost  always  stands  in  the  relative  proposi- 
tion, when  a  relative  and  demonstrative  proposition  are  combined,  and 
immediately  after  the  relative. 

260.  Emphasis  suggests  the  following  rules  : 
1.  Any  word  which  is  to  be  made  prominent  is  placed  at  or  near  the 
beginning  of  the  sentence,  or  sometimes,  if  not  the  primary  predicate,  at 


250  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

the  end  (as  an  unusual  position) :  as,  a  mails  mors  abducit,  non  a  bonis ; 
dedi  veniam  horaini  impudenter  petenti ;  sequemur  igitur  hoc  tempore 
et  in  hae  quaestione  potissimum  Stoicos. 

2.  The  ordinary  place  of  the  verb  being  at  the  end,  it  is  emphatic  when 
at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence;  in  other  positions  than  these,  it  makes 
the  preceding  word  or  words  emphatic :  as,  Saguntum  vestri  circumsident 
exercitus ;  rnox  Karthaginem  circumsidebunt  Romanae  legiones. 

3.  As  the  first  place  is  allotted  to  emphatic  words,  in  the  second  place  in 
the  sentence  unimportant  words  are  often  thrown  in ;  such  words  as  are 
rather  slurred  over  in  reading. 

4.  An  unemphatic  word  is  sometimes  put  between  words  connected  with 
one  another,  partly  to  throw  the  words  before  it  into  greater  relief,  partly 
to  prevent  itself  occupying  a  more  important  position  in  the  sentence.    So 
especially  est,  sunt,  etc. :  as,  qui  in  fortunae  periculis  sunt  ac  varietate 
versati;  priinum  Marcelli  ad  Nolam  praelio  populus  se  Romanus  erexit. 

5.  Contrasted  and  kindred  words  are  put  next  to  one  another :  as,  ego 
Q.  Fabium,  senem  adulescens,  ita  dilexi  ut  aequalem;  quaedam  falsa 
veri  speciem  habent ;  quid  quod  tu  te  ipse  in  custodiam  dedisti? 

6.  Contrasted  pairs  of  words  are  often  put  with  the  words  in  one  pair  in 
a  reverse  order  to  that  of  the  other  pair ;  two  of  the  contrasted  words  still 
often  being  together  as  by  last  rule.    This  figure  is  called  chiasmus,  i.  e. 
crossing,  from  the  Greek  letter  X :  as,  ratio  enim  nostra  consentit,  re- 
pugnat  oratio ;  cum  spe  vincendi  simul  abjecisti  certandi  etiam  cupidi- 
tatem;  clariorem  inter  Eomanos  deditio  Postumium,  quarn  Pontum 
incruenta  victoria  inter  Samnites  fecit ;  cedere  alius,  alius  obtruncari. 

7.  Where  cumulative  effect,  or  a  sense  of  similarity  rather  than  contrast, 
is  desired,  the  same  order  of  words  is  preserved  in  the  component  clauses. 
This  figure  is  called  anaphora,  i.  e.  repetition :  as,  his  similes  sunt  omnes 
qui  virtuti  student:  levantur  vitiiSj  levantur  erroribus;  ut  non  nequi- 
quam  tantae  virtutis  homines  judicari  deberet  ausos  esse  transire  latissi- 
mum  flumen,  ascendere  altissimas  rupes,  subire  iniquissimum  locum. 

261.  Rhythm  admits  of  no  definite  rules  being  given,  but 
suggests : 

1.  That  short  words  or  expressions  occupying  a  distinct  position  as  sub- 
ject, predicate,  etc.,  be  put  first :  as,  erant  ei  veteres  inirnicitiae  cum  duobus 
Rosciis  Amerinis ;  terrebat  et  proximus  annus  lugubris  duorum  consulum 
funeribus ;  movet  ferocem  animum  juvenis  seu  ira  seu  detrectandi  certa- 
minis  pudor  seu  inexsuperabilis  vis  fati. 

2.  That  there  be  variety  in  the  arrangements  of  neighboring  sentences  as 
regards  prosody  and  syntax.   (Thus  chiasmus  and  anaphdra  are  often  found 
together.)    Examples :  Vide  quid  intersit  inter  tuam  libidinem  majorumque 
auctoritatem,  inter  amorem  furoremque  tuum  et  illorum  consilium  atque 
prudentiam.    Adde  hue  fontium  gelidas  perenuitates,  liquores  perlucidos 
amnium,  riparum  vestitus  viridissimos,  speluncarum  concavas  amplitu- 


ORDER   OF  WORDS. 

dines,  saxorum  asperitates,  impendentium  montium  altitudines  immensi- 
tatesque  camporum :  adde  etiam  reconditas  auri  argentique  venas  infini- 
tamque  vim  marmoris. 

3.  As  the  rhythm  of  prose  is  essentially  distinct  from  that  of  verse,  all 
verse  endings  should  be  avoided  at  the  close  of  a  sentence,  particularly 
the  hexameter  termination  of  dactyl  and  spondee :  as,  essg  vldetur. 

The  occasional  use  of  such  endings,  and  even  of  a  full  verse,  in  the  his- 
torians, may  be  justified  by  the  context,  but  should  not  be  imitated  in 
ordinary  prose. 

4.  The  following  is  a  table  of  cadences  approved  by  Cicero  and  Quintilian : 
glorfam  comparavlt ;  membra  firmarunt ;  essg  vldgatur ;  cogltans  sentlo ; 
tin  Sciplo ;  varfStates ;  plurlbus  de  causis ;  vlrum  condemnarunt ;  vlderi ; 
ndvissg. 

262.  Position  of  subordinate  sentences. 

1.  Subordinate  sentences,  except  those  which  express  a  result,  follow  the 
rule  of  qualificatory  words  or  phrases :  i.  e.,  they  are  put  before  the  prin- 
cipal sentence  to  which  they  belong ;  either  before  the  whole  of  it  or  before 
all  but  a  few  words :  as,  cum  hostium  copiae  non  longe  absunt,  etiamsi 
inruptio  nulla  facta  est,  tamen  pecunia  relinquitur,  agricultura  deseritur. 
Qui  autem  ita  faciet,  ut  oportet,  primum  vigilet  in  deligendo  (quern  imi- 
tetur),  deinde,  quern  probavit,  in  eo,  quae  maxime  excellent,  ea  diligentis- 
sime  persequatur.    Quid  autem  agatur  cum  aperuero,  facile  erit  statuere 
quam  sententiam  dicatis. 

2.  A  short  principal  sentence  or  clause  is  often  prefixed  to  the  whole  or  part 
of  the  subordinate  sentence,  especially  if  this  be  a  dependent  interrogative  : 
as,  Stoicorum  autem  non  ignoras  quam  sit  subtile  vel  spinosum  potius  dis- 
serendi  genus. 

263.  A  Period  consists  of  at  least  two,  and  generally  several 
sentences,  so  connected  that  the  grammatical  construction  is 
not  complete  till  the  last  clause  is  added. 

1.  A  Period  (nepioSos)  is  so  called  because  the  main  proposition  surrounds 
the  interpolated  clauses. 

2.  By  being  grouped  together  in  due  order,  the  clauses  of  a  period  pro- 
duce the  effect  of  logical  completeness,  and  of  that  sonorous  and  dignified 
expression  which  accorded  well  with  the  majesty  and  dignity  of  the  Roman 
character.  (Kennedy.) 

3.  The  usual  arrangement  of  clauses  in  a  period  is  analogous  to  that  of 
words  in  a  simple  sentence,  viz. : 

First :  The  word  or  clause  containing  the  subject,  with  the  words  or 
clauses  immediately  connected  with  it ; 

Second :  The  words  or  clauses  denoting  the  time,  place,  motive ; 
Third :  The  word  or  clause  expressing  the  remoter  object ; 


252  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

Fourth :  The  word  or  clause  expressing  the  immediate  object ; 
Fifth :  The  principal  verb. 

To  this  order  there  are  frequent  exceptions,  particularly  in  the  position 
of  the  principal  verb. 

264.  Both  as  regards  arrangement,  and  in  many  other  re- 
spects, it  will  be  useful  while  writing  a  Latin  composition  to 
break  off  occasionally  and  read  aloud  extracts  from  some  Ro- 
man author  of  the  best  period.  This  helps  one  to  get  into  the 
right  atmosphere  for  his  work. 


QUANTITY  IN   VERSE.  253 

PROSODY. 


265.    QUANTITY  IN  VERSE. 

1.  In  Latin,  as  in  Greek,'  Verse  depended  upon  the  Quantity 
of  syllables,  every  syllable  being  either  long  ( — )  or  short  ( w ); 
and  the  various  Metres  resulted  from  the  various  relations  of 
the  long  and  short  syllables  to  each  other ;  their  alternation 
producing  the  rhythm  of  the  verse. 

In  English,  on  the  contrary,  and  other  modern  languages, 
the  rhythm  of  verse  depends  upon  the  accentuation  or  non- 
accentuation  of  the  syllables. 

2.  A  short  syllable  was  said  to  contain  one  mora  or  time;  a 
long  syllable  two  morae  or  times. 

Note. — The  short  syllable  is  the  unit  of  measure,  and  has 
the  value  of  JK  or  an  £  note  in  music.  The  long  syllable  has 
the  value  of  j  or  a  £  note. 

3.  Syllables  which  might,  at  the  same  period  of  the  language, 
be  either  long  or  short,  are  called  common  ( ^  or  ~ ). 

4.  Some  syllables  which  at  one  period  of  the  language  were  long,  at, 
another  were  short. 

5.  A  long  syllable  resolved  into  two  short  is  marked  w ;  two  short 
syllables  contracted  into  a  long,  UU . 

6.  A  long  syllable  in  the  arsis  (3  283, 1,  3)  maybe  prolonged 
so  as  to  have  the  measure  of  three  or  even  four  short  syllables, 
and  may  thus  represent  a  whole  foot.    A  syllable  which  in- 
cludes three  times  is  marked  i (J*)»  one  which  includes 

four  times,  i — i  ( J  ) . 

7.  A  long  syllable  may  be  shortened,  so  as  to  take  the 
place  of  a  short  syllable.     Such  a  syllable  is  called  irrational, 
and  is  marked  >  . 

8.  In  most  kinds  of  metre,  the  last  syllable  of  every  verse 
is  common ;  that  is,  it  may  be  regarded  as  either  long  or 
short,  as  the  metre  requires. 

Note.— If  the  last  syllable  is  short,  where  the  metre  requires  a  long 
syllable,  the  pause  naturally  made  at  the  end  of  the  verse  gives  it  the 
additional  time  required ;  if  on  the  other  hand  a  long  syllable  stands  here 
22 


254  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

for  a  short,  the  excess  of  time  is  not  felt  in  consequence  of  this  very  antici- 
pation of  the  effect  of  the  pause.  The  voice,  too,  would  give  some  indica- 
tion of  the  irrational  time. 

266.    QUANTITY  BY  POSITION. 

1.  A  syllable  is  long  by  nature  when  it  has  a  long  vowel  or  diphthong : 

as,  fato,  maestis. 

2.  When  a  short  vowel  is  followed  by  two  or  more  COD  so- 
nants, a  double  consonant,  or  the  letter  J,  the  syllable  is  long 
by  position : 

As,  factus  subsunt. 

Exc. — In  the  compounds  of  jugum  the  syllable  before  j  is  short. 

Note  1. — The  consonants  may  be  in  the  first  word,  or  in  two  consecutive 
words.  Where  both  are  in  the  second  word,  the  vowel  usually  remains 
short ;  the  more  careful  poets  avoid  this  position. 

Note  2. — H  does  not  give  position ;  and  qv  has  only  the  power  of  a 
single  letter. 

Note  3. — In  the  older  language,  final  a  preceded  by  a  short  vowel  was 
slightly  sounded,  if  at  all ;  it  was  often,  therefore,  not  written,  and  often 
with  the  older  poets  did  not  give  position :  as,  infantibns  parvis ;  torvus 
draco.  * 

Note  4. — Before  cm  and  en  in  Greek  words  a  vowel  may  remain  short. 

Note  5. — The  comic  poets  sometimes  keep  a  vowel  short  before  two  con- 
sonants. 

3.  A  syllable  ending  in  a  short  vowel  coming  before  a  mute 
followed  by  1  or  r  is  common  : 

As,  tenebrae  or  tenebrae ;  trtplex  or  triplex ;  retro  or  retro.  In  the 
same  verse  Vergil  has  patris,  patrem. 

Exc. — The  comic  poets  seem  never  to  have  lengthened  a  short  vowel 
before  a  mute  and  a  liquid. 

1.  This  rule  does  not  apply  where  the  mute  ends  a  syllable  and  the 
liquid  begins  another.  In  such  cases  the  vowel  is  long  by  position,  as  in 
abluo,  obruo. 

4.  One  vowel  (or  diphthong)  before  another  vowel,  or 
before  h,  is  short : 

As,  meae,  traho,  To,  boant.  tuns,  praeustus. 

1.  a  of  the  old  Genitive  of  the  First  Declension  in  ai  is  long :  as,  terrai, 
purpureai. 

2.  a  or  e  is  long  before  i  in  proper  names  ending  in  ins  or  ia  :  as,  Gains, 
Pompeius,  Aquileia ;  a  is  long  in  aio. 


QUANTITY.  255 

3.  e  is  long  in  diei ;  Lucretius  has  rei ;  and  once  fidei  (as  in  Plautus  and 
Ennius).    So  ei  in  Lucretius,  ei  in  Catullus,  the  dative  of  is;  it  is  some- 
times contracted  into  one  syllable,  as  is  also  rei. 

Note  i.— In  ai  and  ei  followed  by  a  vowel,  the  j  both  made  a  diphthong  with 
the  preceding  a  or  e,  and  also  was  pronounced  like  English  y :  as,  Pompeius, 
pronounced  Pompei-yus.  Cicero  wrote  the  i  double :  as,  Pompei-ius. 

Note  2. — In  the  compounds  of  jacio  it  was  usual  to  write  i  only  once :  as,  elcit, 
though  the  i  was  equivalent  to  ji.  This  accounts  for  the  quantity  of  refcio, 
where  the  i  formed  a  diphthong  with  the  e  of  re,  and  also  a  separate  syllable. 
But  ei-cit,  rei-cit,  are  sometimes  dissyllabic,  and  abTcit,  adicit  are  found  with 
their  first  syllable  short. 

4.  In  genitives  in  ius,  i  is  common,  but  generally  long  in  prose:  as, 
ipsius,  unius.     In  alms  (contracted  for  aliius),  i  is  always  long. 

'  5.  I  is  long  before  a  vowel  in  flo,  except  before  er :  as,  flebam,  flam ; 
but  fterem.    (Plautus  and  Terence  sometimes  have  fieri,  etc.) 

6.  The  following  quantities  should  be  noticed :  eheu,  Rhea  (Silvia),  dlus, 
divine;  Diana,  ohe, 

7.  Many  Greek  words  keep  a  vowel  long  before  another:  as,  aer, 
museum,  Thalia ;  AcademTa,  in  the  best  Latin ;  daedaleus,  chorea. 

267.   DIPHTHONGS  AND   CONTRACTED  SYLLABLES. 

1.  Diphthongs,  and  vowels  derived  from  diphthongs, 
are  long :  as,  aeger,  audio,  inlquus  (in  +  aequus). 

1.  Prae  in  composition  is  generally  short  before  a  vowel. 

2.  Sometimes  a  diphthong  at  the  end  of  a  word  is  shortened  when  the 
next  word  begins  with  a  vowel :  as,  insulae  lonio. 

2.  Contracted  syllables  are  long :  as,  fructus  (fructuis), 
nil  (mhil),  prudens  (providens). 

268.   DERIVATIVES  AND   COMPOUNDS. 

1.  Derivative  and  compound  words  generally  retain  the 
quantity  of  their  primitives  : 

As,  amo,  amor,  amlcus,  amlcitia,  mater,  maternus,  defero,  regifugium. 

Exc.— Perfects  and  supines  of  two  syllables  have  the  first  long,  even 
when  that  of  the  present  is  short :  as,  veni,  vldi,  motum. 

Note.— In  such  perfects  as  rui,  the  penult  is  of  course  short. 

2.  Eight  perfects  and  ten  supines  have  the  first  syllable  short  :J>Tbi, 
dedi,  fidi,  liqui  (from  liqueo),  scidi,  steti,  stiti,  tuli;  citum,  datum, 
itum,  litum,  quitum,  ratum,  rutum,  satum,  situm,  statum  (from  sisto). 

These  perfects  seem  either  to  be  reduplicated  or  to  have  once  been  so. 


256  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

3.  Reduplicated  perfects  have  the  first  two  syllables  short :  as,  cecidi 
(from  cado),  pepuli,  cecini,  didici. 

Note.— The  second  syllable  is  sometimes  long  by  position :  as,  fefelli,  mo- 
mordi.  Cecidi  from  caedo)  has  the  second  syllable  long,  because  the  I 
represents  the  diphthong  ae ;  pepedi,  from  pedo,  also  has  a  long  penult. 

4.  Some  apparent  derivatives  are  illusory :  rex,  regis,  regina  do  not 
come  from  rego.     Variations  of  quantity  do  occur,  however,  in  words  sup- 
posed to  come  from  the  same  root. 

5.  The  change  of  a  vowel  or  diphthong  in  forming  a  compound  does  not 
alter  its  quantity. 

6.  The  quantity  of  the  simple  word  is  changed  in  some  compounds :  as, 
agnitus  and  cognitus,  from  notus ;  pejero  and  dejero,  from  juro. 

7.  Ne-  is  generally  long :  but  short  in  neque,  nequeo,  nefas,  nefandus, 
nefarius,  and  some  other  words. 

8.  Pro  is  generally  long  in  composition;   but  there  are  many  excep- 
tions: as,  procella,  profanus,  proficiscor,  profecto,  profugus,  profundus, 
profari,  profiteer,  protervus  (also  protervus  in  Plautus),  pronepos,  pro- 
neptis,  profundo  (profundo,  Catullus) ;  propello  twice  in  Lucretius,  else- 
where long ;  procure,  propino,  propago ;  Proserpina  regularly,  hut  Horace 
and  Seneca  each  once  Proserpina.    In  Greek  words  pro  remains  short ; 
but  prologus  in  Plautus  and  Terence. 

9.  The  inseparable  prepositions  di,  se,  ve  are  long  ;  re 
or  red,  short. 

10.  Be  is  sometimes  lengthened  by  position.     In  the  oldest  Latin  the 
quantity  was  re  or  red  generally.    Hexameter  poets  have  religio,  relicuus, 
reliquiae  ;  but  the  later  poets  always  reliquus. 

11.  In  refert,  the  first  syllable  is  not  the  preposition,  but  from  res; 
refero  has  refert. 


MONOSYLLABLES. 

1.  Monosyllables  ending  in  a  trowel  are  long  :  except  the 
enclitics  (§11,  2)  and  the  nominative  and  accusative  qua. 

2.  Monosyllables  ending  in  a  consonant  are  long. 

1.  Such  as  end  in  b,  d,  1,  t  are  short;  but  sal  and  sol,  and  diphthongs, 
as  aut  and  haud,  are  long. 

2.  Fac,  nee,  an,  tn,  fer,  per,  ter,  vtr,  cor,  bTs,  cTs,  ts,  quts,  are  short; 
as^  is  es  from  sum,  although  Plautus  has  is.    The  pronoun  hie  is  common ; 
hoc  (nominative  and  accusative)  is  long  in  the  later  poets,  common  in  the 
old  dramatic  poets.    The  quantity  of  ac  is  uncertain,  as  it  never  comes 
before  a  vowel  in  good  writers. 


QUANTITY  OF  FINAL  SYLLABLES.  257 

270.   FINAL  SYLLABLES  IN  POLYSYLLABLES. 

1.  In  words  of  more  than  one  syllable,  final  i,  o,  and  u 
are  long ;  a,  e,  and  y  are  short. 

Exceptions. — a  final  is  long  : 

1.  In  the  Ablative  Singular  of  the  First  Declension  :  as,-mensa. 

2.  In  the  Imperative  of  the  First  Conjugation  (but  puta  is  used  paren- 
thetically). 

3.  Sometimes  in  the  Nominative  of  Greek  nouns,  and  in  the  Vocative 
of  nouns  in  as. 

4.  In  Numerals :  as,  triginta. 

5.  In  Prepositions  and  Adverbs :  as,  contra,  frustra,  postea  (but  we 
have  ita,  quia ;  eia  or  heia  is  perhaps  common). 

e  final  is  long : 

1.  In  the  Ablative  of  the  Fifth  Declension :  as,  die,  ho  die. 

2.  In  the  second  person  singular  of  the  Imperative  of  the  Second  Con- 
jugation: as,  gaude.    (But  sometimes  cave,  vide.) 

3.  In  Adverbs  from  Adjectives  of  the  Second  Declension :  ^s,  valde, 
aegre;  also  in  ferme,   fere,   one.     (But  bene,  male,  inferne   (Lucr.), 
superne  (Lucr.,  Hor.),  temere.) 

4.  When  it  represents  the  Greek  long  e  (»?) :  as,  Hebe. 

i  final  is  short : 

1.  In  Greek  Nominatives,  and  some  Greek  Datives  and  Vocatives. 

2.  In  nisi,  quasi,  necubi,  sicubi,  cut  (when  a  dissyllable). 

i  final  is  common  : 
1.  In  mihl,  tibl,  sibi,  ibi,  ubT. 

Note.— In  hexameter  poets,  ibidem;  in  scenic  poets,  ibidem;  utique, 
uttnam,  although  always  utl ;  ubinam,  ubivis,  but  ublque. 

o  final  is  short : 

In  cedo,  cito,  duo,  ego,  modo  (but  sometimes  modo  in  Lucretius  and 
ego  in  Plautus). 

o  final  is  common  : 

1.  In  some  Nouns,  especially  Proper  Names. 

2.  In  Verb  endings  (but  generally  long  in  the  best  period) ;  and  in  later 
writers,  even  in  the  ending  -do  of^the  Gerund^          w        w 

3.  In  the  Silver  Age  in  quando,  porro,  sero,  ambo,  octo,  and  a  number 
of  other  words.     (In  all  ages  quando quidem.) 

2.  c  final  lengthens  the  vowel :  except  donSc. 

3.  d,  1,  n,  r,  and  t  final  shorten  the  vowel. 

22*  R 


258  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

Exceptions : 

1.  nihil. 

2.  Greek  nouns  in  n  which  have  the  preceding  vowel  long  in  Greek. 

3.  Celtiber,  Hiber  (Iber),  dispar,  impar;  Greek  nonns  in  er  which 
have  e  (17)  in  Greek. 

4.  The  final  syllable  of  contracted  perfects  is  long :  as,  disturbat,  petit, 
obit ;  so  often  the  final  syllable  of  petiit  and  of  lit  and  its  compounds. 

4.  as,  es,  and  os  final  are  long  : 
Exceptions : 

1.  as  in  the  Nominative  Singular  and  Accusative  Plural  of  Greek 
nouns  which  have  the  a  short  in  Greek. 

2.  penes ;  Nouns  of  the  Third  Declension  which  increase  short :  as, 
miles,  militis  (but  pis  and  its  compounds,  Ceres,  abies,  aries,  paries, 
remain  long) ;  compounds  of  es  :  as,  potes,  ades ;  es  in  words  representing 
a  short  ending  in  Greek  :  as,  cacoethes,  Arcades.  . 

3.  exos,  compos,  impos;  os  in  words  which  have  a  short  ending  in 
Greek :  as,  Chios,  Phasidos. 

5.  is,  us,  and  ys  final  are  short : 
Exceptions : 

1.  is  in  the  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural ;  Is  in  the  Accusative  Plural  of 
the  Third  Declension ;  Is  in  the  second  person  singular  of  the  Present 
Subjunctive ;  Is  in  compounds  of  vis :  as,  mavis,  quamvls ;  Is  in  Nomina- 
tives which  increase  long  (as,  Samnls,  Samnltis) ;   is  representing  a 
long  syllable  in  Greek :  as,  Salamls,  Salamlnis ;  Is  in  the  Future  Perfect, 
and  Is  in  the  Perfect  Subjunctive ;  sanguts ;  Vergil  has  once  pulvls. 

2.  us  in  Nominatives  which  have  u  in  the  Genitive :  as,  virtus,  virtutis, 
but  Horace  has  once  palus;  us  in  the  Genitive  Singular  and  Nominative 
and  Accusative  Plural  of  the  Fourth  Declension ;  us  representing  Greek 
ouj :  as,  Pan  thus. 

3.  ys  in  Tethys  and  chrysophrys. 

271.   QUANTITY  OF  INCREMENTS. 

A  noun  is  said  to  increase  when  any  case  of  it  is  longer  than  the 
nominative  singular,  by  one  or  more  syllables;  and  a  verb,  when  any 
part  of  it  is  longer  than  the  second  singular  present  indicative  active,  by 
one  or  more  syllables.  The  penult  syllable  of  such  increased  form  is  called 
the  increment.  Thus,  -sa  is  the  increment  in  mensarum,  and  -no  in 
honoris.  In  longer  forms,  when  more  than  one  syllable  is  added,  there 
may  be  a  second  or  third  increment :  as,  vecti-ga-lis,  vecti-ga-li-a, 

112  123  12 

mo-nu-i,  mo-nu-is-sem,  mo-nu-is-se-mus ;  or  also  a  fourth :  as,  au-di-e- 
ba-mi-ni. 

1.  In  the  increment  of  nouns  and  adjectives,  a  and  o 
are  long ;  e,  i,  u,  and  y  are  short : 


QUANTITY   OF  INCREMENTS.  259 

As,  mensarum,   audacis ;  puerorum,   doctioris ;  pueri,   pedis ;  vtri, 
divitis;  portubus,  vulturis;  Er^cis. 

Exceptions : 

a  is  short : 
in  Greek  nouns  in  a  and  as  of  the  third  declension :  as,  poema,  poematis, 

lampas,  lampadis. 

in  masculine  nouns  in  -al  and  -ar :  as,  Caesar,  Caesaris. 
in  those  Latin  nouns  in  -as  whose  genitive  does  not  end  in  -atis  :  as,  mas, 

maris ;  but  vas,  vasis ;  and  anas,  anatis. 
in  par,  paris,  and  its  compounds,  and  in  baccar,  hepar,  jubar,  nectar, 

and  sal. 
in  nouns  ending  in  s  preceded  by  a  consonant :  as,  trabs,  trabis. 

e  is  long : 

in  the  fifth  declension :  as,  diebus,  dierum. 

in  Greek  words  in  -ter,  -teris  and  -es,  -etis :  as,  crateris,  lebetis. 
in  words  whose  genitive  ends  in  -enis  :  as,  ren,  renis. 
in  many  words  which  cannot  be  classified :  as,  veris,  Iberis,  legis,  regis, 

mercedis,  heredis,  plebis,  quietis,  locupletis,  vervecis. 

i  is  long : 
in  nouns  in  -in  and  -is  of  the  third  declension :  as,  delphin,  delphTnis ; 

Salamis,  Salamlnis. 
in  nouns  and  adjectives  in  -ix,  -Tcis :  as,  radix,  radlcis,  felix,  fellcis. 

Note.— But  calix,  filix,  fornix,  nix,  pix,  salix,  strix,  and  some  others, 
increase  short :  i.  e.,  in  -Tcis,  except  nix,  nivis,  strix,  strigis. 
in  nouns  in  -is,  -Ttis  :  as,  Quiris,  Quiritis ;  lis,  ITtis ;  in  glis,  gllris ;  vis, 

vires  (plur.),  and  a  few  more. 

o  of  the  third  declension  is  short : 

in  nouns  ending  in  us  :  as,  temporis,  from  tempus  ;  leporis,  from  lepus. 
in  neuter  nouns  in  -or  and  -ur :  as,  marmoris,  from  marmor ;  jecoris, 

from  jecur. 
in  many  Greek  nouns,  having  o  short  in  Greek :  as,  Hector,  Hectoris ; 

aedon,  aedonis;  tripus,  tripodis;  rhetor,  rhetoris. 
in  nouns  and  adjectives  ending  in  s  preceded  by  a  consonant :  as,  inopis, 

from  inops. 
arbor,  memor,  bos,  compos,  impos,  lepus,  praecox,  and  some  others, 

have  o  short:  as,  arboris,  memoris,  bovis,  compotis,  etc. 
national  names  generally  have  o  short:  as,  Macedonis.    But  there  is 

great  variety. 

u  is  long : 
in  many  nouns  of  the  third  declension  ending  in  us  :  as,  virtutis,  paludis, 

rnris,  telluris. 

Note.— Frugis,  furis,  lucis,  pluris,  Pollucis  (from  [frux],  fur,  lux,  plus, 
Pollux),  and  some  others,  have  u  long. 


260  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

y  is  long : 

in  some  words,  mostly  foreign :  as,  Ceycis,  Trachynis. 
in  some  other  words  it  is  common. 

2.  In  the  increment  of  verbs  a,  e,  o,  and  u  are  long :  i  is 
short : 

As,  amatis,  monebatis,  audiatis,  feratis ;  legemus,  legebamus ;  ama- 
tote ;  amaturus,  solutum ;  legimus,  monuimus. 

Exceptions : 

do  and  its  compounds  have  the  stem  vowel  (or  first  increment)  short  : 
as,  dare,  dabamus,  dabo,  daturus. 

Note. — But  the  vowel  a  is  long  in  da  and  das. 

e  before  r  is  short  in  the  first  increment  of  the  present  and  imperfect 
tenses  of  the  third  conjugation ;  and  in  the  second  increment  of  futures 
ending  in  -beris  and  -bere :  as,  regere  (infiu.  and  imperat),  regeris  or 
regere  (pres.  ind.  pass.),  regeremus,  regeremur;  amaberis,  doceberis. 

e  is  short  before  -ram,  -rim,  -ro,  and  the  persons  formed  from  them : 
as,  amaveram,  monuerim,  legero. 

e  before  r  in  the  third  plur.  perf.  ind.  act.  is  sometimes  shortened 
by  the  poets :  as,  steterunt  (§  279). 

i  is  long : 

in  perfects  in  -Tvi :  as,  petivi ; 
in  supines  of  verbs  with  such  perfects :  as,  petltum. 
in  the  first  increment  of  the  fourth  conjugation :  as,  audlrem. 

Note  i.— But  -imus  in  the  perf.  is  short. 

Note  2.— If  the  i  comes  before  a  vowel,  it  is  short. 

in  subjunctives  in  -im  :  as,  slmus,  sitis,  vellmus. 
in  the  imperative  of  nolo :  as,  nollto. 

i  is  common, 

but  oftener  long,  in  rlmus  and  rltis  of  the  perfect  subjunctive ;    * 
but  oftener  short,  in  rimus  and  ritis  of  the  future  perfect. 

u  is  short : 
in  the  first  person  plural :  as,  sumus,  volumus. 

272.   PENULTS  AND  ANTEPENULTS. 

Rules  are  sometimes  given  for  the  quantity  of  penults  and  antepenults ; 
but  they  have  many  exceptions,  and  such  quantities  are  best  learned  by 
practice  in  reading  poetry,  etc.,  with  the  aid  of  a  Dictionary  or  Gradus. 

273.  NATURAL  QUANTITY.— AUTHORITY. 

1.  We  are  often  ignorant  of  the  natural  quantity  of  Latin  syllables  which 
we  call  long  by  position.  The  ancients  carefully  distinguished  in  pronun- 
ciation such  words  as  lecto,  I  read,  and  lecto,  from  lectus,  a  couch.  General 


NATURAL   QUANTITY.— ELISION.  261 

laws  of  language  give  us  here  some  help.  Some  special  laws,  too,  are  well 
established ;  thus,  every  vowel  followed  by  ns  or  nf  was  long  by  nature : 
as  in  mens,  sapiens,  Tnfelix,  confecit;  while  e  was  short  in  mentis,  sapi- 
entis ;  o  in  pontis,  fontis,  mentis.  In  many  cases  we  know  the  length 
of  the  vowel  by  finding  the  Latin  word  written  in  Greek:  as,  Sestius, 

Si7<moj,  ROSCIUS,  'PWCTKJOJ. 

2.  When  we  have  no  other  reason,  it  is  customary  to  say  that 
a  syllable  is  long  or  short  by  authority, — that  is,  the  authority 
of  the  poets,  whose  usage  is  our  guide. 

274,  ELISION. 

1.  "When  one  word  ends  in  a  vowel  or  diphthong,  or  the 
letter  m,  and  the  following  word  begins  with  a  vowel  or  h, 
such  final  vowel  or  diphthong1,  or  m  with  its  vowel,  is 
elided  ;  that  is,  does  not  count  in  the  verse  : 

As,  Quidve  moror,  si  omnes  uno  ordine  habetis  Achivos ;  scanned  thus  : 
Quidve  moror,  s'  omnes  un°  ordine  habetis  Achivos. 

2.  The  first  vowel  of  est,  and  sometimes  of  es,  is  often  elided,  instead  of 
the  preceding  vowel:  as,  labori  'st;  timendumst;  simili's  (similis  es). 

3.  The  earlier  poets  use  elision  more  freely  than  the  later.    In  the  best 
ages,  usage  varies  in  different  authors  and  in  different  styles  of  verse. 

4.  In  reading,  the  elided  vowels  should  be  pronounced  slightly  and 
rapidly,  rather  than  suppressed  altogether. 

5.  The  elision  of  a  final  vowel  or  diphthong  is  called  synaloepha ;  that 
of  m  with  the  preceding  vowel  ecthlipsis. 

6.  On  the  elision  of  final  s,  see  §  266,  2,  n.  3. 

275.  HIATUS. 

Sometimes  a  vowel  is  left  unelided  before  another.    This 
open  concurrence  of  vowels  is  called  hiatus : 
As,  Nereidum  matri  et  Neptuno  Aegaeo. 

1.  The  monosyllabic  interjections,  a,  o,  heu,  are  not  elided  by  the 
dactylic  poets. 

Note  1. — Such  elision  would  too  much  obscure  and  weaken  the  word, 
lo  is  found  unelided  in  a  few  sentences,  and  once  in  Ovid  the  Greek  inter- 
jection ai  ai. 

Note  2.— 0,  though  not  elided,  is  sometimes  made  short. 

2.  Sometimes  a  long  vowel  is  left  unelided  and  long  in  the  arsis  of  a 
foot  (282,  f ,  3) :  as, 

Stant  et  juniper!  et  castaneae  hirsutae. 
Ter  sunt  conatl  imponere  Peli6  Ossam. 


262  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

Once  only  Vergil  leaves  a  syllable  thus  long  in  the  thesis  of  the  foot : 
Glauco  et  Pauopeae  6t  Indo  Melicertae. 

3.  Vergil  allows  himself  an  hiatus,  first,  in  the  arsis  of  the  second,  third, 
fourth,  or  fifth  foot,  especially  in  proper  names  followed  by  a  mark  of  punc- 
tuation, or  where  the  same  vowel  is  the  initial  of  the  following  word; 
secondly,  in  the  thesis,  when  in  accordance  with  Greek  precedents  a  long 
vowel  or  diphthong  is  shortened,  especially  in  the  case  of  proper  names 
and  interjections ;  with  short  vowels  in  the  thesis,  hiatus  occurs  only  before 
a  strong  mark  of  punctuation  (as  in  Aen.  i.  405). 

4.  Hiatus  in  Vergil  is  often  found  in  those  lines  which  are  formed  on  a 
Greek  model,  i.  e.,  those  which  terminate  in  a  quadrisyllable  (and  this, 
moreover,  is  frequently  of  Greek  origin),  or  which  have  a  spondaic  ending. 

276.   SYNAERESIS. 

1.  Two  vowels  usually  pronounced  separately  are  sometimes 
contracted  into  one  syllable  : 

As,  aurea,  pronounced  something  like  aurya;  ferrei;  eosdem,  pro- 
nounced somewhat  like  yosdem.  So  sometimes  Phaethon  for  Phaethon ; 
Orphea,  alveo,  deorsum,  dein,  deesse,  antelt, 

2.  Such  contraction  is  frequent  in  ii,  iidem,  iisdem,  dii,  diis,  dein, 
deinceps,  deinde,  deest,  deerat,  deero,  deerit,  deesse,  etc. 

3.  The  vowels  i  and  u  are  often  made  consonantal  before  another  vowel : 
as,  vindemjator  (pronounced  vindemyator),  for  vindemiator ;  so  arjetat, 
abjete,  parjetibus,  omnja,  precantja,  consiljum,  for  arietat,  etc.;  for 
genua,  genva  (pronounced  genwa) ;  so  pitvita,  patrvi,  sinvatis,  etc.    In 
the  genitive  plural  of  the  Fourth  Declension,  uu  is  sometimes  contracted. 

4.  When  i  and  u  are  thus  consonantal,  they  have,  with  another  conso- 
nant, the  power  of  lengthening  a  preceding  short  vowel. 

5.  If  only  one  of  the  vowels  is  written,  the  contraction  is  called  crasis : 
as,  di,  derit. 

277.  DIALYSIS  OR  DIAERESIS. 

One  syllable  is  sometimes  divided  into  two  : 
As,  Tro-i-a  for  Tro-ja ;  sil-u-a  for  sil-va ;  su-es-co  for  sue-sco  ;  Or-phe-us 
for  Or-pheus. 

278.  SYNCOPE. 

A  short  vowel,  or  a  syllable,  is  sometimes  omitted :  as,  repostor  for  re- 
positor ;  surpnit  for  surripuit. 

279.  SYSTOLE. 

A  syllable  long  by  nature  or  position  is  sometimes  shortened :  as,  viden  for 
videsne;  hodie  for  hoc  die,  constantly;  stetemnt  for  steterunt,  occasionally. 


VERSIFICATION.  263 

280.  DIASTOLE. 

A  syllable  naturally  short  is  sometimes  lengthened :  as,  Prlamides  for 
Priamides.  Vergil  sixteen  times  lengthens  -que. 

281.    TMESIS. 

Tmesis  is  the  separation  of  the  component  parts  of  a  compound  word 
by  an  intervening  word  or  words :  as,  inque  salutatam  for  insalutatamque. 

282.  SYNAPHIA   OR  CONTINUITY. 

1.  The  first  syllable  of  a  following  verse  sometimes  has  an  influence  on 
the  last  syllable  of  the  preceding,  either  by  position  or  elision. 

This  is  not  uncommon  in  the  Anapaestic  system,  and  the  Gly conic  of 
Catullus. 

2.  The  parts  of  a  compound  word  are  sometimes  divided  between  two 
verses :  as,  si  non  offenderet  unum- 

Quemque  poetarum  limae  labor  et  mora. 

3.  For  hypermetrical  verses,  see  §  287. 

VERSIFICATION. 

283.  A  verse  is  composed  of  a  certain  number  of  feet. 

1.  Each  foot  has  two  parts,— the  arsis,  on  which  falls  a 
special  stress  of  voice  called  the  ictus,  or  stroke,  and  the 
thesis.*  The  regular  alternation  of  arsis  and  thesis  in  successive 
feet  produces  the  rhythm  or  harmonious  movement  of  the  verse. 

2.  The  most  common  feet  in  Latin  are  the  following  : 

Feet  of  Three  Times.  • 
Trochee     —  ^        arma      J  /* 
Iamb          w   —         can5       J*  J 
Tribrach    w  w  ^  temere 

Feet  of  Four  Times. 
Dactyl       -    w  w  Htora      J 
Anapaest  w  w  —  patulae  J    •    J 
Spondee     -   -        fato        J  J 

*  Originally,  "the  more  strongly  intoned  part  of  the  measure  was  called  thesis 
(fleVis),  because  in  beating  time  the  foot  was  here  set  down,  while  the  lighter 
part  of  the  measure,  during  which  the  foot  was  raised,  was  called  arsis  (ap<ri?)." 
The  Roman  writers  inverted  this  use.  The  accent  in  the  examples  marks  the 
regular  place  of  the  ictus. 


264 


LATIN   GRAMMAR. 


3.  The  ictus  falls  on  the  long  syllable,  as  marked  in  the  examples. 

4.  The  spondee  and  the  tribrach  are  merely  representative  feet,  and  take 
their  character  and  ictus  from  the  kind  of  verse  in  which  they  are  found. 

5.  The  following  is  a  full  list  of  Feet  or  so-called  Feet . 

«  -  v  w  amabtmus 
w  w  -  w  nemoralts 
www-  regtmm! 
w  «  —  metuentes 
—  «  «  terrebimus 
w  _  w  _  protervttas 

-  «  -  «  condtdlsse 

-  «  «  -  oppositTs 

w  —  w  regebamur 

w amavlstl 

Epitritus  Secundus  -  w  -  -  audTebas 
Epitritus  Tertius    -  -  w  -  aiidiverant 
Proceleusmatic  «  «  «  w  hominibus  Epitritus  Quartus  -     -  «  rexissemus 
Paeon  Primus  -  -  w  w  condidimus  Dispondee  -  suspexerunt 

6.  In  Falling  Rhythms,  the  verse  moves  from  long  syllables  to  short, 
as  in  verses  composed  of  dactyls  and  trochees ;  in  Rising  Rhythms,  from 
short  to  long,  as  in  verses  composed  of  iambs  and  anapaests.    Rising 
rhythms  may  be  treated  as  Falling,  by  considering  the  first  short  syllable 
or  syllables  as  an  Anacrusis,  or  Base  (284,  C). 

284.  Explanation  of  technical  terms. 

A.  Hemimeris  (^>«pts)  means  £.  Hence  one  foot  and  a  half  (f)  is  called 
Trihemimeris ;  two  feet  and  a  half  (£),  Penthemimeris ;  three  feet  and  a  half  (5), 
Hephthemimeris ;  four  feet  and  a  half  (f ),  Ennehemimeris. 

1.  Hence:  a.  Caesura  (g  286)  after  1£  feet  is  called  Trihemimeral ;  6.  after  2$  feet, 
Penthemimeral;  c.  after  3£  feet,  Hephthemimeral ;  d.  after  4£  feet,  Ennehemim- 


Pyrrhic 

pater 

Paeon  Secundus 

Iamb 

amant 

Paeon  Tertius 

Trochee 

-    w                Vldlt 

Paeon  Quartus 

Spondee 

latos 

Ionic  o  minor  i 

Tribrach 

www     regere 

Ionic  a  majori 

Anapaest 

«  w  -    anYmos 

Dii  ambus 

Dactyl 

-  «  w    corpora 

Ditrochee 

Cretic 

-  w  -    dlxerant 

Choriamb 

Amphibrach 

v  -  «    latmus 

Antispast 

Bacchius 

«  —    regebant 

Epitritus  Primus 

Palimbacchius —  «    rexisse 
Molossus  dlcebas 


eral. 

Examples 

:                       a 

6            c                 d 

1. 

Pudit  equum  1 

tnagno 

tellus 

percussa  1 

tride'nti.—  Verg. 

2. 

Aut  a'mite 

levi 

ra'ra 

tendit 

retia.—  Hor. 

In  the  first  verse,  a  Dactylic  Hexameter,  the  fourth  caesura  is  weak,  me  others 
strong  (§  286,  7). 

In  the  second  verse,  an  Iambic  Trimeter,  all  the  caesuras  are  after  thesis,  and 
therefore  weal*. 


TECHNICAL   TERMS.  265 

2.  In  distinction  from  Caesura  (which  is  the  coincidence  of  the  close  of  a  word 
with  the  middle  of  a  foot),  the  coincidence  of  the  close  of  a  word  with  the  close 
of  a  foot  is  called  Diaeresis  :  as, 

Lumina  |  labentem  caelo  quae  |  ducitis  |  annum. 

3.  Diaeresis  in  some  metres  coincides  with  a  natural  pause  in  the  verse,  caused 
by  the  ending  of  a  rhythmic  series.    It  is  marked  ||. 

B.  Metre  faerpov,  measure)  is  used  in  two  senses. 

I.  Metre,  in  the  first  place,  means  the  verse  or  system  of  verses  used  by  a  poet 
in  any  composition  :  as,  Heroic,  Elegiac,  Alcaic,  Sapphic  Metre. 

1.  A  Metre  which  contains  only  one  kind  of  verse  is  called  Monoc51um  ;  a 
metre  which  contains  only  two  kinds,  Dicolum  ;  one  which  contains  only  three 
kinds,  Tricolum  (from  ^61/09,  single  ;  KwAov,  member). 

2.  When  two  kinds  of  verse  alternate,  they  form  Distichum  (from  Si's,  twice  ; 
O-TI'XOS,  row),  a  Distich  or  couple. 

When  recurrence  takes  place  after  four  verses,  these  form  a  Tetrastich  (stanza). 

3.  Thus  the  Dactylic  Hexameter  (Heroic),  Iambic  Trimeter,  Trochaic  Tetram- 
eter, and  others,  are  found  as  Metra  Monocola.    The  Elegiac  Metre  and  many 
others  are  Dicola  Disticha.    The  Sapphic  and  some  others  are  Dicola  Tetras- 
ticha.    The  Alcaic  is  Tricolum  Tetrastichum. 

II.  Metre,  in  the  second  place,  is  used  to  express  a  given  portion  of  a  Verse  in 
some  Rhythms  :  as  the  Dactylic,  the  Trochaic,  the  Iambic,  and  the  Anapaestic. 

1.  In  a  Dactylic  Verse,  one  foot  constitutes  a  Metre. 

In  Trochaic,  Iambic,  and  Anapaestic  Rhythms  two  feet,  or  a  Dipody  (Suro&ia), 
constitute  a  Metre. 

2.  A  Verse  comprised  in  a  single  Metre  is  called  Monometer  ;  in  two,  Dimeter  ; 
in  three,  Trimeter;  in  four,  Tetrameter;  in  five,  Pentameter;  in  six,  Hex- 
ameter. 

3.  Wanting  one  syllable  to  complete  its  metres  a  Verse  is  called  Catalectic 
(KttTaXrjKTiKos)  ;  in  syllabam,  if  the  incomplete  foot  retains  one  syllable  ;  in  disyl- 
labum,  if  it  retains  two;  wanting  two  syllables,  Brachycatalectic  (/3paxv*aTaA>)K- 
TOS)  ;  having  a  syllable  above  its  metres,  Hypercatalectic  (vn-epKaTaArj/cTos)  ;  having 
its  metres  complete,  Acatalectic  (d 


4.  The  time  of  the  omitted  syllable  or  syllables  in  a  catalectic  verse  is 
filled  by  a  pause.    A  pause  of  one  time,  equivalent  to  a  short  syllable,  is 
marked  A  ;  a  pause  of  two  times,  7". 

5.  A  Verse  may  also  be  called  according  to  the  number  of  feet  :  Binarius  (a),  as 
the  Adonian;  Ternarius  (3),  as  the  Pherecrateau  ;  Quaternarius  (4),  as  the  Tro- 
chaic or  Iambic  Dimeter;  Senarius  (6),  as  the  Dactylic  Hexameter  or  the  Iambic 
Trimeter;  Septenarius  (7),  as  the  Trochaic  Tetrameter  Catalectic;  Octonariu* 
(8),  as  the  Trochaic  Tetrameter  Acatalectic  of  the  scenic  poets. 

6.  Or  a  Verse  may  be  called  according  to  the  number  of  its  syllables,  as  Phalae- 
cius  Hendecasyllabus  (ii).    So  the  Alcaic  Strophe  consists  of  two  Alcaic  Hende- 
casyllabi  (n),  one  Alcaic  Enneasyllabus  (g),  and  one  Alcaic  Decasyllabus  (10). 

C.  1.  A  syllable  at  the  beginning  of  a  Verse  before  the  just  Rhythm,  is 
called  Anacrusis  (ivd/c/>ov<»?,  back-stroke)  :  as  (according  to  one  mode  of 
scansion), 


266  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

0  |  magna  Carthago  probrosis. 

2.  Two  syllables  so  preceding  the  just  Rhythm  are  called  a  Base,  which 

may  be  trochaic : 

Lute  |  umve  papaver ; 
or  spondaic : 

Duram  |  difficilis  mane  ; 
or  even  iambic. 

3.  A  double  Base,  according  to  some  metrists,  is  trochee  +  spondee,  e.  g., 
in  the  Sapphic  Verse,  as  they  explain  it : 

Ille  mi  par  |  esse  deo  videtur. 
This  may  even  have  an  Anacrusis  before  it :  as, 

Mors  |  it  fugaoem  |  persequitur  vimm. 

D.  A  Verse  is  called  Asynartete  (aawdpniros)  which  is  really  composed 
of  two  different  verses  welded  together  : 

Tu  vina  Torquato  move  ||  consule  pressa  meo  (§  299,  1). 

E.  Some  kinds  of  verse  are  named  after  their  inventor  or  first  user, 
usually  a  Greek  lyric  poet :  e.  g.,  Arcb.ilocb.us,  Alcaeus,  Alcman,  Sappho, 
Hipponax,  Anacreon,  Fherecrates,  Asclepiades,  and  Glycon. 

285.    THE  DAGTTLIG  HEXAMETER. 

1.  The  dactylic  hexameter,  first  adapted  from  the  Greek  by 
Ennius,  became  the  heroic  measure  in  Latin.     It  consists  of 
six  feet,  of  which  the  last  is  always  a  spondee,  the  fifth  is 
generally  a  dactyl,  and  any  of  the  first  four  may  be  either  a 
dactyl  or  a  spondee. 

2.  From  its  sustained  and  continuous  flow,  this  is  the  verse  best  adapted 
for  narrative  (or  epic)  poems,  and  it  is  used  also  in  didactic  poems,  satires, 
and  poetic  epistles. 

3.  The  spondee  has  the  same  time  as  the  dactyl,  and  in  dactylic  verse 
takes  an  ictus  on  its  first  syllable. 

4.  In  Homer,  the  last  foot  is  a  trochee  or  curtailed  dactyl ;  while  the 
best  Latin  vexse  lets  us  see  that  in  the  writer's  mind  it  was  rather  a  genuine 
spondee.     (Munro.) 

5.  Sometimes  the  fifth  foot  is  a  spondee.    The  line  is  then  called  spondaic. 

6.  The  last  word  in  the  verse  is  seldom  a  monosyllable,  and  only  so  to 
produce  a  special  effect :  as,  procumbit  humi  bos ;  praeruptus  aquae  mons. 

7.  A  light  and  rapid  movement  is  given  to  the  verse  by  frequency  of 
dactyls ;  a  slow  and  weighty  movement  by  spondees :  as, 

Quadrupedante  putrem  sonitu  quatit  ungula  campum. 
Illi  inter  sese  magna  vT  bracchia  tollunt 


CAESURA   IN  DACTYLIC  HEXAMETERS.  267 

286.    CAESURA. 

1.  Caesura  occurs  where  a  word,  which  began  in  a  preceding 
foot,  ends  in  the  middle  of  a  foot : 

As,  Una  sa  |  lusf  vie  |  tisj,  nul  |  lamf  spe  |  raref  sa  |  lutem. 

2.  In  every  verse,  melody  requires  a  pause.    This  ordinarily 
corresponds  with  a  caesura,  and  is  called  the  caesural  pause. 

In  the  example  above,  it  is  marked  J,  the  other  caesuras  being  marked  f. 

3.  The  caesural  pause  frequently  concurs  with  a  pause  of  sense ;  and 
where  there  are  several  possible  places  for  it,  considerations  of  the  sense  and 
of  the  proper  connection  of  words  have  weight  in  determining  it.    Thus : 

HTnc  materf  cultrixf  CybelT,J  Corybantiaque  aera. 
Neque  interf  sanctosf  TgnesJ  in  honore  deorum. 

4.  The  most  natural  and  common  place  of  the  caesural  pause 
in  a  hexameter  verse  is  after  the  arsis  in  the  third  foot :  as, 

ContTcuere  omnes,t  TntentTque  ora  tenebant. 

A  pause  in  the  fourth  foot,  however,  is  very  agreeable,  when 
at  the  same  time  there  is  a  less  considerable  pause  in  the  second 
foot:  as, 

Italtam,t  fatof  profugusj  Lavfmaque  venit. 

5.  The  so-called  Bucolic  Caesura  is  a  diaeresis  (§  284,  A,  2)  at  the  end 
of  the  fourth  foot :  as, 

fte  domum  saturae,  venit  Hesperus,  ||  ite  capellae. 

6.  The  more  frequent  occurrence  of  the  pause  in  the  third  foot  gives  the 
flow  of  the  verse  a  certain  unity,  while  occasional  changes  of  its  place  pre- 
vent monotony.    The  expression  of  the  verse  is  greatly  affected  by  the  place 
of  the  pause  or  pauses.    The  earlier  caesuras  in  general  give  to  the  verse 
more  vivacity;  the  later,  more  gravity. 

7.  When  only  one  syllable  in  the  foot  precedes  it,  the  caesura  is  called 
strong,  or  masculine;  when  two  syllables,  it  is  called  weak,  trochaic,  or 
feminine.    Thus,  the  caesura  after  sperare  is  weak  in  the  verse 

Una  salus  vlctfs,  nullam  sperare  salutem ; 

and  the  other  caesuras  in  the  same  verse  are  strong  (unless,  with  some 
grammarians,  we  regard  the  ending  of  a  word  before  the  end  of  the  first 
foot  as  making  a  caesura,  in  which  case  there  is  a  weak  caesura  after  una). 


268  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

287.  HYPERMETRICAL    VERSES. 

Ennius  and  Vergil  sometimes  introduce  a  verse  containing  a 
syllable  beyond  the  number  requisite  for  the  metre  ;  this  sylla- 
ble, however,  ends  in  a  vowel,  or  in  in  preceded  by  a  vowel, 
and  is  elided  before  the  initial  vowel  of  the  following  line. 

Such  verses  are  sometimes  effective  as  denoting  that  the  speaker  is 
carried  on  beyond  bounds  by  his  excitement,  or  breaks  off  leaving  some- 
thing still  unsaid ;  or  simply  as  giving  an  emphatic  ending  to  the  sentence. 

Examples : 

Imprecor,  arma  armfs ;  pugnent  Tpsfque  nepotesg'ue. 
Se  satis  ambobus  Teucrfsque  venfre  L&tinTsque. 

288.    THE  ELEGIAC  DISTICH. 

The  Elegiac  distich  consists  of  a  Dactylic  Hexameter 
verse  followed  by  a  so-called  Pentameter.  The  latter  con- 
sists of  two  Dactylic  penthemimers :  each  penthemimer  con- 
sisting of  two  feet, — either  of  which,  in  the  first,  may  be  a 
dactyl  or  a  spondee,  but  both  of  which  must  be  dactyls  in  the 
second, — followed  by  a  long  syllable.  The  long  syllable  is 
dwelt  upon,  and  followed  by  a  pause,  so  that  it  is  really  equiv- 
alent to  a  foot ;  and  the  verse  should  be  called  hexameter, 
though  differing  from  the  ordinary  dactylic  hexameter. 
Examples : 

Jam  seges  est  ubi  Troja  fult,  resecandaque  falce 

Lfixuriat  Phrygio  ||  sanguine  pTnguts  humus,  T 
Semisepulta  virum  curvis  feriuntur  aratris 
Ossa,  rulnosas  ||  occulit  herb  a  domos.  A 

289.    OTHER  DACTYLIC  METRES. 

1.  The  Dactylic  Tetrameter  acatalectic  occurs  rarely.    It  consists  of 
four  Dactyls,  for  either  of  the  first  three  of  which  a  Spondee  may  be  sub- 
stituted : 

j. :"«  | '  j.  ~v  |  i  ~w  |  j.  v  w 

2.  The  Dactylic  Tetrameter  catalectic  is  similar  to  the  last  four  feet  of 
the  Hexameter.    It  is  used  chiefly  with  other  verses : 

J.     -v      I      J.      ~v      I      J.    v-        I      1. 


TROCHAIC  METRES.  269 

3.  The  Dactylic  Dimeter  catalectic  (called  Adonic  from  a  poem  of 
Sappho  addressing  Adonis),  like  the  last  two  feet  of  the  Hexameter,  con- 
sists of  a  Dactyl  and  a  Trochee  or  Spondee.  In  the  Sapphic  strophe,  the 
dactyl  is  cyclic,  and  the  second  foot  a  trochee  : 


4.  The  Dactylic  Trimeter  catalectic  in  syllabam,  or  minor  Arohiloohian, 
consists  of  two  Dactyls  and  a  long  syllahle.  It  is  used  only  with  other 
verses.  By  adding  a  pause,  it  may  be  regarded  as  Dactylic  Trimeter  : 

J.    v    v      I      J.    w    w      I      1    - 

290.    TROCHAIC  METRES. 

1.  Trochaic  Tetrameter  catalectic  consists  of  eight  trochees  (two  trochees 
making  a  metre),  for  any  of  which  an  irrational  trochee  may  be  used,  and 
for  any  but  the  last  a  cyclic  dactyl,  an  apparent  anapaest  (here  a  resolved 
irrational  trochee),  or  a  tribrach.  There  is  a  diaeresis  after  the  first 
dimeter.  Found  only  in  the  comic  poets. 

Note  1.—  As  a  long  syllahle  shortened,  so  as  to  take  the  place  of  a  short 
syllable  in  verse,  is  called  irrational,  and  marked  >,  the  same  name 
is  given  to  the  foot  in  which  it  occurs  ;  thus,  a  spondee  used  for  a  trochee 
is  called  an  irrational  trochee,  -^  >,  and  a  spondee  used  for  an  iamb,  an 
irrational  iamb,  >  -L. 

Note  2.—  A  dactyl  taking  the  place  of  a  trochee  is  called  a  cyclic  dactyl, 

and  is  marked  —  «  ;  it  may  be  represented  approximately  by  Js^  j  ;  an 


anapaest  taking  the  place  of  an  iamb  is  called  a  cyclic  anapaest,  marked 
v  v-.  The  name  cyclic,  given  by  the  ancients,  is  supposed  to  be  derived 
from  the  use  of  these  rapid  feet  in  the  dancing  measures  in  the  choruses. 

Note  3.  —  A  tribrach  taking  the  place  of  a  trochee  has  the  ictus  on  its 
first  syllable,  its  first  two  syllables  representing  the  long  syllable  of  the 
trochee,  which  of  course  has  the  ictus.  A  spondee  used  for  a  trochee  has 
also  its  ictus  on  the  first  syllable. 

2.  Trochaic  Tetrameter  catalectic  consists  of  seven  trochees  and  an  ad- 
ditional syllable  ;  the  diaeresis  after  the  first  dimeter.    It  Is  frequent  in 
comic  poets  with  the  same  choice  of  feet  as  in  the  acatalectic.    Seneca 
observes  stricter  rules,  allowing  tribrachs  in  the  odd  places,  except  the 
last,  spondees  (i.  e.,  irrational  trochees)  and  irrational  anapaests  in  the 
even  places,  and  cyclic  dactyls  in  the  first,  second,  and  sixth  places. 

Note.—  By  observing  a  pause  after  the  syllable  in  the  eighth  place,  the 
verse  may  be  treated  as  acatalectic.  The  same  principle  applies  in  other 
catalectic  measures. 

3.  Trochaic  Dimeter  catalectic  consists  of  three  trochees  and  a  long 
syllable.    It  is  used  only  in  combination  with  other  verses. 

23* 


270  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

4.  Trochaic  Dimeter  brachycatalectic,  or  Ithyphallic,  consists  of  three 
trochees,  and  hence  may  be  called  Trochaic  Tripody.  It  is  used  only  with 
other  verses. 

291.  DACTYLO-TROCHAIC  OR  LOGAOEDIC  VERSES. 

1.  The  Greater  Archilochian  metre  consists  of  four  cyclic  dactyls  fol- 
lowed by  three  trochees.  In  any  of  the  first  three  feet,  irrational 
trochees  may  be  used.  It  is  found  only  with  other  verses. 


2.  The  Alcaic  Decasyllabic  consists  of  two  cyclic  dactyls  (not  each 
contained  in  a  single  word),  followed  by  two  trochees.     It  is  a  combina- 
tion of  the  endings  of  the  two  metres  used  in  the  first  three  lines  (§  292, 
4,  5)  of  the  Alcaic  stanza,  in  which  it  forms,  as  a  refrain,  the  fourth  or 
closing  line. 

A,v     |     JMW     |     -iv     |     -tv 

3.  The  Aristophanic  consists  of  a  dactyl  followed  by  two  trochees  ;  or, 
otherwise,  of  a  cyclic  dactyl,  a  trochee,  a  lengthened  long  syllable,  and  a 
long  syllable  with  pause  : 

^v  I  j.*   I  LL   |   -  A 

292.    TROCHAEO-DACTTLIC  METRES. 

1.  The  Sapphic  minor  is  a  Trochaic  tetrapody,  with  a  dactyl  always  in 
the  third  foot.  It  consists  of  a  trochee,  irrational  trochee,  cyclic  dactyl, 
and  two  trochees.  Catullus  has,  but  rarely,  a  true  trochee  in  the  second 
foot.  There  is  a  caesura,  usually  strong,  sometimes  weak,  in  the  dactyl. 
Usually  combined  with  the  Adonic. 


2.  The  greater  Sapphic  consists  of  the  minor  Sapphic  with  a  choriamb 
inserted  before  the  dactyl.    This  choriamb  is  best  treated  as  a  cyclic 
dactyl  and  a  long  syllable  followed  by  a  pause,  equivalent  to  a  trochee. 

J.  w    |    J.  >    |    j»  w    |    i_lf  ||  i,  „    |    jr  v    |  il.     |    _  A  || 

3.  The  Phalaecian,  or  simply  Hendecasyllabus,  is  also  a  Trochaic  pen- 
tapody.    The  first  foot  is  usually  an  irrational  trochee,  but  in  Catullus 
occasionally  a  true  trochee  or  iamb  ;  the  second  a  cyclic  dactyl  (except  in 
Catul.  55,  where  it  is  frequently  a  spondee,  i.  e.,  an  irrational  trochee)  ; 
the  other  three  feet  are  trochees.    There  is  no  special  caesura. 

4.  The  Alcaic  hendecasyllabus  consists  of  a  long  or  short  syllable  as 
an  anacrusis,  a  trochee,  an  irrational  trochee,  and  two  cyclic  dactyls. 


TRO  CH  AEO-  DACTYLIC  METRES.  271 

There  is  generally  a  diaeresis  after  the  spondee  (i.  e.,  the  irrational  tro- 
chee).   It  is  used  in  the  first  two  lines  in  the  Alcaic  stanza. 

?    |      1    w     |     i    <,      I     A,    v     I      IM    v 

5.  The  Alcaic  enneasyllabus  consists  of  a  long  or  short  syllable  as  an 
anacrusis,  a  trochee,  an  irrational  trochee,  and  two  trochees.  It  forms 
the  third  line  of  the  Alcaic  stanza. 


6.  The  Pherecratian  consists  in  Catullus  of  a  trochee  or  irrational 
trochee,  a  cyclic  dactyl,  and  a  trochee  ;  in  Horace,  of  an  irrational  tro- 
chee, a  dactyl,  and  a  spondee  (or,  better,  a  lengthened  long  syllable,  fol- 
lowed by  a  long  syllable  and  a  pause).    Used  in  stanzas  with  other  metres. 

JL  >     |    A,  w    |    <-L    I    _   A 

7.  The  Glyconic  consists  of  a  trochee  or  irrational  trochee,  followed  by 
a  cyclic  dactyl,  a  trochee,  and  a  long  syllable  with  a  pause.    Catullus 
has  usually  a  trochee  in  the  first  place  ;  Horace  almost  always  a  spondee. 

J.  >    |   JL*  *   I   J.  v  I  -  A 

8.  The  Priapean  consists  of  a  trochee  or  irrational  trochee,  a  cyclic 
dactyl,  a  trochee,  a  long  syllable  followed  by  a  pause,  equivalent  to  a 
trochee,  a  trochee,  a  cyclic  dactyl,  and  a  trochee.  (Catul.  17.) 


293.    CHORIAMBIC  METRES,  SO   CALLED. 

1.  The  minor  Asclepiadean  is  sometimes  considered  as  consisting  of  a 
spondee,  a  choriamb,  and  two  dactyls ;  but,  better,  of  an  irrational  trochee, 
a  cyclic  dactyl,  a  long  syllable  followed  by  a  pause,  making  it  equivalent 
to  a  foot,  a  cyclic  dactyl,  a  trochee,  and  a  long  syllable  followed  by  a 
pause. 

j.  >  |  A,  v  i  L!-,  ||  A,  v  |  i  v  i  -  A  ii 

2.  The  greater  Asclepiadean  is  sometimes  considered  as  consisting  of  a 
spondee,  two  choriambs,  and  two  dactyls.    But  each  of  the  choriambs 
should  be  treated  as  a  dactyl  and  a  long  syllable  followed  by  a  pause,  as 
in  the  minor  Asclepiadean  metre.    The  spondee  is  an  irrational  trochee, 
and  the  dactyls  are  cyclic.     There  is  usually  a  diaeresis  after  each 
choriamb. 

1  >    |    i,  v    |  LL,  ||  i,  v    I  LL,  ||  A,  .    I    1  v    I    -  A   || 

3.  For  the  greater  Sapphic,  see  §  292,  2. 


272  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

294.    CBETIG  AND   GREATER  IONIC  METRES. 

1.  The  Cretic  Tetrameter  acatalectic  consists  of  four  cretics.    It  occa- 
sionally admits  a  dactyl  or  paeon,  or  even  a  molossus  as  an  irrational 
cretic.     It  is  found  only  in  the  comic  poets. 

2.  The  Cretic  Tetrameter  catalectic  has  three  cretics  followed  by  a 
spondee. 

3.  The  Sotadean  consists  of  three  ionics  a  majori  and  one  trochee.    A 
double  trochee  is  often  substituted  for  the  third  ionic,  and  sometimes  for 
the  first;  and  some  of  the  long  syllables  are  occasionally  resolved  into  two 
shorts. 

295.  ANAPAESTIC  METRES. 

1.  The  Anapaestic  dimeter  acatalectic  consists  of  four  anapaests,  for 
any  of  which  a  spondee  (with  the  ictus  on  the  last  syllable),  and  for  the 
first  and  third  of  which  a  dactyl  (with  the  ictus  on  the  second  syllable), 
may  be  substituted.    There  is  a  diaeresis  after  the  second  foot. 

2.  The  Anapaestic  dimeter  catalectic,  or  Paroemiac  verse,  consists  of 
three  anapaests  (or  their  substitutes)  and  a  short  syllable. 

3.  The  Anapaestic  monometer  acatalectic  consists  of  two  feet,  either 
anapaests  or  spondees.    The  first  may  be  a  dactyl.    It  is  only  used  inter- 
spersed among  dimeters. 

Note. — Many  metrists  regard  the  first  two  short  syllables  in  an  anapaestic 
line  as  an  anacrusis,  and  thus  treat  all  anapaestic  verses  as  dactylic. 

296.  IAMBIC  METRES. 

1.  The  Iambic  Tetrameter  catalectic  consists  of  seven  iambs  and  a  half. 
In  the  first  and  fifth  places  are  found  apparent  spondees  occasionally.    The 
comic  poets  use  apparent  spondees  and  dactyls,  and  cyclic  anapaests,  in 
every  place  but  the  seventh. 

Note.— In  iambic  verse,  spondees  and  anapaests  take  the  ictus  on  the 
last  syllable ;  tribrachs  and  dactyls  on  the  second. 

2.  The  Iambic  Trimeter  acatalectic  consists  of  six  iambs.    It  is  some- 
times found  pure  throughout  a  poem,  but  generally  in  Horace  admits  an 
irrational  iamb  frequently,  a  cyclic  dactyl  rarely,  in  the  first,  third,  and 
fifth  places,  and  a  cyclic  anapaest  in  the  first  and  fifth.    The  tribrach 
occurs  in  all  places  except  the  last.    There  is  a  caesura  usually  in  the 
middle  of  the  third  foot,  sometimes  not  until  the  middle  of  the  fourth. 

3.  The  Iambic  Scazon  or  Hipponactean,  also  a  Trimeter  Acatalectic, 
differs  from  the  preceding  by  having  always  a  spondee  in  the  sixth  foot 
and  iamb  in  the  fifth.     Either  a  spondee,  anapaest,  or  dactyl  may  be  used 
in  the  first  or  third  feet;  a  tribrach  in  the  second,  third,  and  fourth. 
The  caesura  is  in  the  third  or  fourth  foot. 

4.  The  Iambic  Trimeter  catalectic  consists  of  four  iambs  and  a  bac- 


IAMBIC  AND  BACCHIAC  METRES.  273 

chTus,  or  rather  of  five  iambs  and  a  long  syllable  following  by  a  pause, 
making  it  equivalent  to  a  foot.  Spondees  (irrational  iambs)  are  sometimes 
used  in  the  first  and  third  places,  and  a  tribrach  once  occurs.  There  is  a 
diaeresis  in  the  middle  of  the  third  foot.  It  is  used  only  with  other  verses. 

5.  The  Iambic  Dimeter  acatalectic  consists  of  four  iambs,  for  the  first 
and  third  of  which  a  spondee  (irrational  iamb)  is  often  substituted.    A 
tribrach  and  (cyclic)  dactyl  also  occur,  though  rarely.    It  is  used  with 
other  verses. 

6.  The  Iambic  Dimeter  catalectic  consists  of  two  iambs  and  a  bacchlus ; 
or,  better,  of  three  iambs  and  a  long  syllable  followed  by  a  pause.    A 
special  form  of  this  verse,  called  the  Anacreontic,  has  an  anapaest  in  the 
first  foot. 

7.  The  Iambic  Dimeter  brachycatalectic  consists  of  three  iambs.    It  is 
found  only  at  the  close  of  a  system  of  dimeter  catalectics. 

Note.— Many  metrists  regard  the  first  syllable  in  an  iambic  line  as  an 
anacrusis,  and  thus  treat  all  iambic  verses  as  trochaic. 

297.  ANAPAESTO-IAMBIC  METRE. 

The  Galliambic  consists  in  theory  of  two  Iambic  or  Anacreontic  Dime- 
ters, of  which  the  first  is  catalectic,  and  the  second  brachycatalectic. 
There  are  thus  six  feet,  which  are  usually  anapaest,  iamb,  bacchlus, 
anapaest,  tribrach,  iamb ;  but  with  some  variations. 

The  metre  is  found  only  in  Catullus  65.  The  name  is  from  the  Gallic 
priests  of  Cybele,  who  form  the  subject  of  the  poem. 

298.  BAG  CHI  AC  AND  LESSER  IONIC  METRES. 

1.  The  Bacchlac  Tetrameter  acatalectic  consists  of  four  bacchli ;  a  long 
syllable  may  sometimes  be  resolved  into  two  short,  and  in  some  instances  a 
molossus  occurs  as  an  irrational  bacchius.    It  is  found  only  in  comic  poets. 

Occasionally  a  BacchTac  Hexameter  occurs. 

2.  The  Ionic  a  minori,  occurring  in  Latin  only  in  Horace  iii.  12,  is 
composed  of  forty  feet,  all  ionics  a  minori.    As  the  synaphla  is  perfect, 
it  may  be  divided  into  four  decameters;  but  it  is  best  printed  in  four 
stanzas,  in  each  of  which  the  first,  second,  and  fourth  lines  are  dimeters, 
the  third  a  tetrameter.    It  may  also  be  divided  into  stanzas  of  three  lines, 
two  tetrameters  and  a  dimeter. 

299.  IAMBS  AND  DACTYLS. 

1.  The  lambilegic  verse  consists  of  an  iambic  dimeter,  followed  by  a 
minor  Archilochian  (§  289,  4),  which  is  a  dactylic  penthemimer.  There 
is  a  diaeresis  after  the  penthemimer. 

>_    |    ._    I*-    |    .-||-_    |    -,.    |    -7T 


274  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

2.  The  Elegiambic  verse  consists  of  a  dactylic  penthemimer  followed  by 
an  iambic  dimeter.    There  is  a  diaeresis  after  the  penthemimer. 

>  > 

-  V  „     |     ---     I      U     ||   v    -     I      v    -      I     v    -     I     „- 


300.   IAMBICO-TROCHAIC  METRE. 

The  Saturnian  is  the  oldest  form  of  Latin  verse,  resembling  the  English 
ballad  metre  : 

The  queen  is  in  her  parlor,  ||  eating  bre"ad  and  honey. 
Many  irregularities  occur. 

Examples  :  ,  .  ,  _£_     ,      , 

Dabunt  malum  Metelll,  ||  Naevio  poetae. 
Immortales  mortales  ||  si  foret  fas  flere, 
Flerent  divae  camenae  ||  Nae  vium  poetam  ; 
Itaque  postquam  est  orcino  H  traditus  thesauro 
Obliti  sunt  Bomai  |]  loquier  lingua  latina. 

301.  HOE  ATI  AN  METRES. 

In  the  Odes  and  Epodes  of  Horace,  the  following  Metres  are  found 

1.  The  minor  Asclepiadean  system,  consisting  of  four  minor  Aselepia- 
dean  verses  (293,  1).    Od.  i.  1  ;  iii.  30  ;  iv.  8. 

2.  The  first  Asclepiadean  strophe,  in  which  the  Glyconic  verse  (292,  7) 
alternates  with  the  minor  Asclepiadean  (293,  1).    Od.  i.  3,  13,  19,  36; 
iii.  9,  15,19,24,25,28;  iv.  1,3. 

3.  The  second  Asclepiadean  strophe,  consisting  of  three  minor  Asclepi- 
adean verses  followed  by  a  Glyconic.    Od.  i.  6,  15,  24,  33  ;  ii.  12  ;  iii.  10, 
16  ;  iv.  5,  12. 

4.  The  third  Asclepiadean  strophe,  consisting  of  two  minor  Asclepi- 
adean verses,  a  Pherecratean  (292,  6),  and  a  Glyconic.    Od.  i.  5,  14,  21, 
23;  iii.  7,  13;  iv.  13. 

5.  The  greater  Asclepiadean  system,  consisting  of  four  greater  Ascle- 
piadean verses  (293,  2).    Od.  i.  11,  18  ;  iv.  10. 

6..  The  Sapphic  strophe,  consisting  of  three  minor  Sapphic  verses 
(292,  1)  and  one  Adonic  verse  (289,  3).  Horace  has  a  caesura  generally 
in  the  dactyl. 

Od.  i.  2,  10,  12,  20,  22,  25,  30,  32,  38  ;  ii.  2,  4,  6,  8,  10,  16  ;  iii.  8,  11,  14, 
18,  20,  22,  27  ;  iv.  2,  6,  11  ;  Carmen  Saeculare. 

7.  The  greater  Sapphic  strophe  ;  an  Aristophanic  verse  (291,  3)  fol- 
lowed by  a  greater  Sapphic  (292,  2).    Od.  i.  8. 

8.  The  Alcaic  strophe  consists  of  the  Alcaic  hendecasyllabic  verse 
(292,  4)  twice  repeated,  an  Alcaic  enneasyllabic  (292,  5),  and  an  Alcaic 
decasyllabic  verse  (291,  2).    Horace  has  a  diaeresis  after  the  second 
trochee  in  the  first  three  lines. 


EARLY  DRAMATIC   VERSE.  275 

Note. — No  one  who  feels  the  beauty  of  the  refrain  in  the  fourth  verse 
of  the  Alcaic  strophe,  can  fail  to  recognize  the  dactylic  ending  of  the  hen- 
decasyllabic  and  the  trochaic  ending  of  the  enneasyllable.  Observe,  too, 
that  the  third  verse  is  the  doubling  of  the  first  half  (after  the  anacrusis) 
of  the  first  and  second  verses. 

This  is  often  called  the  Horatian  stanza,  Horace  using  it  more  frequently 
than  any  other.  Od.  i.  9,  16,  17,  26,  27,  29,  31,  34,  35,  37 ;  ii.  1,  3,  5,  7,  9, 
11,  13,  14,  15,  17,  19,  20 ;  iii.  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6, 17,  21,  23,  26,  29 ;  iv.  4,  9, 14, 15. 

9.  The  first  Archilochian  strophe,  in  which  the  dactylic  hexameter 
alternates  with  the  minor  Archilochian  verse  (289,  4).     (Od.  iv.  7.) 

10.  The  second  Archilochian  strophe,  in  which  the  dactylic  hexameter 
alternates  with  an  iambilegic  verse  (299,  1) ;  so  that  in  this  strophe  an 
iambic  dimeter  is  interposed  between  the  two  members  of  the  first  Archi- 
lochian strophe.    Ep.  13. 

11.  The  third  Archilochian  strophe;  iambic  trimeters  alternating  with 
elegiambic  verses  (299,  2).    Ep.  11. 

12.  The  fourth  Archilochian  strophe,  in  which  the  greater  Archilochian 
verse  (291, 1)  alternates  with  the  iambic  trimeter  catalectic,  or,  as  it  may 
be  better  considered,  a  trochaic  pentapody  with  anacrusis.    Od.  i.  4. 

13.  The  Alcmanian  strophe :  dactylic  hexameters  alternating  with  dac- 
tylic tetrameters  catalectic  (289,  2).    Od.  i.  7,  28. 

14.  The  Iambic  trimeter.    Ep.  17. 

15.  The  Iambic  strophe:  iambic  trimeters  alternating  with  iambic 
dimeters.    The  first  ten  Epodes. 

16.  The  first  Pythiambic  strophe:  dactylic  hexameters  alternating 
with  iambic  dimeters.    Ep.  14,  15. 

17.  The  second  Pythiambic  strophe  :  dactylic  hexameters  alternating 
with  iambic  trimeters.    Ep.  16. 

18.  The  Trochaic  strophe  or  the  Hipponactean :  trochaic  dimeters 
catalectic  alternating  with  iambic  dimeters  catalectic.    Od.  ii.  18. 

19.  The  Ionic  a  minori  (298,  2).    Od.  iii.  12. 

302.  EARLY  DRAMATIC   VERSE. 

In  early  dramatic  verse  the  quantity  of  syllables  was  not  so 
definitely  fixed  or  observed  as  in  the  later  dactylic  and  other 
verse.  The  principal  cases  of  deviation  may  be  classified  as 
follows : 

1.  Final  syllables,  afterwards  short,  were  sometimes  used  with  their 
original  long  quantity:  as,  fama  (nom.  sing.),  soror,  pater;  amet,  sciat, 
ponebat,  perciplt,  vendidlt ;  amer,  loquar ;  miles. 

2.  Final  syllables  with  long  vowels  were  sometimes  used  as  short :  as, 
domo  (abl.  sing.),  probe  (adv.),  tace,  manu,  viri;  conrigi,  bonas,  foras, 
dolos,  oves,  manus  (ace.  plur.),  bonis,  habent.    This  is  almost  confined 
to  iambic  words. 


276  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

3.  Syllables  containing  a  vowel  followed  by  two  consonants  were  some- 
times used  as  short.     Such  are : 

Syllables  in  the  later  language  written  with  doubled  consonants :  as, 
Tmmo,  ille,  simillimae,  Philippus,  esse,  occulto ; 

Some  syllables  with  two  different  consonants :  as,  inter,  tnterim,  tntus, 
tnde,  tste,  unde,  nempe,  omnis,  ecquis.  So  also  (according  to  some) 
voluptas,  magistrates,  ministrabit,  venustas,  senectus  (or  perhaps 
volptas,  magstratus) ;  expediant,  exigere,  uxorem. 

4.  Final  syllables  end  ing  in  a  consonant  were  sometimes  not  lengthened, 
though  the  next  word  began  with  a  consonant :  as,  (in  Terence)  entm  vero, 
auctus  sit,  soror  dictast,  dabit  nemo,  simul  conficiam,  tamen  suspicor; 
apud  is  frequently  so  used :  even  student  facere.    This  license  is  most 
frequent  when  the  final  consonant  is  m,  s,  r,  or  t;  and  is  due  to  the  ten- 
dency of  the  early  language  to  drop  the  final  consonant,  and  to  shorten  the 
final  vowel. 

5.  Synizesis  is  freely  used :  as,  tvos  for  tuos,  svos  for  suns,  scjo  for  scio, 
pver  for  puer,  fvit  for  fuit,  djes  for  dies,  filjo  for  filio,  otrjum  for  otium. 

6.  Long  initial  syllables  were  slurred  into  short  quantity  when  they  fol- 
lowed monosyllables  or  elided  pyrrichs ;  sometimes  also  at  the  beginning 
of  a  verse. 

7.  Spondees,  dactyls,  anapaests,  and  even  proceleusmatics,  we^  freely 
used  for  iambs  or  trochees,  except  in  the  last  foot  of  the  verse.  (Roby,  in  part.) 

303.  METRICAL  READING. 

1.  Verse  should  be  read  with  a  certain  metrical  expression, 
which  a  delicate  taste  will  suggest,  but  for  which  no  formal 
rules  can  be  given.     Some  ictuses  will  be  observed  more 
strongly  than  others.     The  meaning  of  the  words,  and  their 
rhetorical  character  as  spirited  or  quiet,  glad  or  plaintive,  etc., 
will  have  its  influence. 

2.  "While  students  will  need  some  exercises  at  first  in  simply 
marking  off  the  feet,  and  indicating  the  place  of  ictus,  caesura, 
or  diaeresis,  before  they  become  initiated  in  the  mysteries  of 
metre,  good  metrical  reading,  as  in  English  verse,  preserves 
the  words  intact,  and  gives  to  the  ear  at  once  the  sense  and 
the  melody. 

3.  Some  kinds  of  verse  admit  of  more  than  one  way  of  scan- 
ning, and  metrists  differ  in  their  preferences.    But  as  the  rhythm 
depends  upon  the  alternations  of  long  and  short  syllables — un- 
disputed facts  in  any  verse,  unless  sometimes  in  the  final  syllable 
— there  is  not  room  for  so  much  difference  in  the  actual  reading 
as  there  is  in  regard  to  the  theory  of  the  structure  of  the  verse. 


APPENDIX. 


GRAMMATICAL  AND  RHETORICAL  TERMS. 

304.    GRAMMATICAL   TEEMS  AND  FIGURES. 

Axnphibolia,  ambiguity ;  e.  g.,  aio  te  Romanes  vincere  posse,  "Pyrrhus 

the  Romans  shall,  I  say,  subdue;  "  where  te  may  be  subject  and  Ro- 

manos  object,  and  vice  versa. 
Anacoluthon,  non-sequence,  where  a  sentence  is  begun  in  one  way  and 

finished  in  another  way,  with  a  changed  construction ;  e.  g.,  Deos  veri- 

simile  est  ut  alios  indulgentius  tracteut  for  deos . . .  alios  tractare  or 

Di ...  at ...  tractent. 
Anastrophe,  inversion;  e.  g.,  male  quod  vult  for  quod  male  vult ;  tecum 

for  cum  te ;  transtra  per  et  remos  for  per  transtra,  etc. 
Aphaerests,  omission  of  a  letter  or  syllable  at  the  beginning  of  a  word ; 

e.  g.,  lis  for  stlis,  natus  for  gnatus. 
Apocope,  cutting  off,  i.  e.,  omission  of  a  letter  or  syllable  at  the  end  of  a 

word ;  e.  g.,  ille  for  illus,  me  for  med,  vigil  for  vigilis. 
Apodosts,  reply,  applied  especially  to  the  consequent  clause  of  a  conditional 

sentence. 
Archaism,  use  of  an  old  or  obsolete  form,  word,  or  expression ;  e.  g.,  olli 

in  Vergil  for  illi ;  duellum  in  Horace  for  bellum ;  animal ;  in  cassum 

magnum  (Lucr.). 
Assimilation,  when  of  two  consonants  the  former  is  either  made  the  same 

as  the  latter,  or  changed  into  another  consonant  of  like  kind :  as,  cessi 

for  cedsi ;  scriptus  for  scribtus ;  defensum  for  defendtum  (where  the 

t  of  the  suffix  is  changed  to  s,  and  the  final  d  of  the  stem  assimilated 

to  it;  s  being  often  written  for  double  s). 
Asyndeton,  omission  of  conjunctions ;  e.  g.,  usus  fructus;  sarta  tecta; 

inde  ventis  remis  in  patriam  properavi  (Cic.) ;  abiit,  excessit,  evasit, 

erupit. 

Attraction,  when  a  word,  by  the  influence  of  another,  is  diverted  from  the 
24  277 


278  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

usual  construction  to  a  less  usual  one:  e.  g.,  hie  est  quern  quaero 
hominem ;  urbem  quam  statuo  vestra  est. 

Barbarism,  using  a  faulty  non-Latin  word,  especially  a  word  faultily 
formed ;  e.  g.,  gladia  for  gladii,  scala  for  scalae.  Distinguished  by 
relating  to  a  single  word  from  solecism  which  relates  to  false  syntax 
of  several  words  or  a  phrase. 

Brachylogy,  shortening  of  expression. 

Crasts,  union  of  two  or  more  vowel  sounds;  e.  g.,  cors  for  cohors,  prorsus 
for  proversus. 

DiaeresTs,  separation  of  one  vowel  sound  into  two;  e.  g.,  Orpheus  for 
Orpheus  :  also  the  treatment  of  a  usually  consonantal  v  as  a  vowel ; 
e.  g.,  siluae  for  silvae.  In  verse,  it  means  also  the  coincidence  of  the 
end  of  a  word  with  the  end  of  a  foot. 

EcthlTpsTs,  crushing  out,  in  verse  of  a  syllable  ending  in  m  before  an  en- 
suing vowel. 

Ellipses,  omission  of  one  or  more  words  which  would  be  used  if  complete 
fulness  of  expression  were  necessary. 

Enallage,  change  ;  i.  e.  putting  of  one  part  of  speech,  number,  case,  tense, 
etc.,  for  another ;  e.  g.,  vivere  nostrum  for  vita  nostra ;  nos  for  ego ; 
mox  navigo  for  navigabo. 

Epenthests,  insertion;  e.  g.,  of  u  in  Alcumena  for  Alcmena;  p  in  sumpsi, 
sumptum. 

Graecism  or  Hellenism ;  use  of  a  Greek  form  or  construction,  not  properly 
Latin  also;  e.  g.,  amplexi  habent  for  amplexi  sunt. 

Hendtadys,  one  by  two ;  use  of  two  nouns  with  a  conjunction,  instead  of  a 
single  noun  with  a  modifier ;  e.  g.,  paterae  et  aurum  for  aureae  paterae. 

Hy  pallage,  exchange  ;  applied  to  such  deviations  from  ordinary  expression 
or  construction  as  Tyrrhenus  tubae  clangor  for  Tyrrhenae  tubae  clan- 
gor ;  arma  del  Volcania  for  arma  a  deo  Volcano  facta. 

Hy  perbaton,  transgression  ;  i.  e.  when  a  considerable  clause  or  expression 
is  interpolated  between  two  parts  of  a  sentence  mutually  connected  in 
meaning;  e.  g.,  hyperboreo  septem  subjecta  trioni;  animadvert!  om- 
nem  accusatoris  orationem  in  duas  divisam  esse  partes. 

Hyphen,  union  of  two  words,  as  if  by  composition ;  e.  g.,  non-sutor,  one  who 
is  not  a  tailor,  ignari  ante-malomm,  ignorant  of  the  ills  before. 

MetathesTs,  change  of  position;  transposition  of  two  or  more  letters  in  a 
word ;  e.  g.,  cretus  for  certus. 

Paragoge,  addition;  applied  e.  g.,  (according  to  a  probably  false  theory)  to 
the  formation  of  dicier  from  dici  by  the  addition  of  er. 

Parentheses,  insertion  of  a  clause  into  the  midst  of  another;  e.  g.,  si  nos, 
id  quod  maxime  debet,  nostra  patria  delectat  (Cic.).  The  term  is 
generally  applied  to  an  ordinary  insertion ;  if  unusual  either  from  its 
character  or  length,  it  is  sometimes  called  hyperbaton. 

Pleonasm,  saying  too  much,  an  unnecessary  fulness  of  expression ;  e.  g., 


GRAMMATICAL   AND   RHETORICAL    TERMS         279 

erant  omnino  itinera  duo,  quibus  itineribus  domo  exire  possent 
(Caes.) ;  suo  sibi  gladio  hunc  jugulo,  /  slay  him  with  his  own  sword 
to  him;  praesensi  prius ;  nemo  unus. 

Frolepsis,  anticipation,  applied  to  such  use  of  an  adjective  as  laceras  aries 
ballistave  concutit  arces,  where  the  towers  are  lacerae  from  the  effects 
of  concutit. 

Protasts,  proposal,  applied  to  the  relative  or  especially  to  the  conditional 
clause. 

Syllepses,  taking  together,  applied  to  the  relation  of  an  adjective  to  two  or 
more  nouns  of  different  genders ;  e.  g.,  pater  et  mater  et  filia  capti  sunt. 

Synaerests,  contraction  of  two  vowels  into  one  sound:  e.  g.,  treating 
deinde,  quoad  as  monosyllables ;  aureo,  eidem  as  dissyllables ;  ariete, 
tenuia  as  trisyllables.  Other  terms  are  synecphonesis  and  synizesis. 
All  three  are  variously  distinguished  and  applied,  but  most  frequently 
used  of  those  contractions  which  are  regarded  as  exceptional  and  not 
expressed  in  writing ;  while  crasis  applies  to  such  contractions  as  au- 
ceps  for  aviceps,  cogo  for  co-ago. 

Synaloepha,  coalescing  of  two  vowels,  applied  to  the  elision  in  verse  of  the 
vowel  at  the  end  of  one  word  before  a  vowel  beginning  the  next. 

Syncope,  striking  together,  applied  to  the  omission  of  a  letter  or  syllable  in 
the  middle  of  a  word ;  e.  g.,  saeclum  for  saeculum,  puertia  for  pueritia, 
luna  for  lucna,  pergo  for  perrego. 

Synecphonesis,  pronouncing  together,  see  Synaeresis. 

Synests,  where  the  construction  is  adapted  to  the  sense  of  the  word  rather 
than  to  the  form ;  e.  g.,  turba  ruunt ;  turba  circumfusi  fremabant 
(Liv.) ;  concursus  populi  mirantium  (Liv.). 

SynlzesTs,  settlement  together,  see  Synaeresis. 

Tmests,  cutting  of  a  compound  word  into  two,  separated  by  other  words ; 
e.  g.,  septem  subjecta  trioni  for  septemtrioni ;  per  mini  gratum 
feceris  for  pergratum ;  quae  me  cunque  vocant  for  quaecunque  me ; 
and  saxo  cere  comminuit  brum  which  Ennius  wrote,  probably  mis- 
taking cerebrum  for  a  compound. 

Zeugma,  joining,  where  a  verb  grammatically  belonging  to  two  or  more 
nouns  is  in  sense  appropriate  to  one  only  (or  to  less  than  all) ;  e.  g.,  te 
greges  centum  Siculaeque  circum  mugiunt  vaccae  (Hor.);  where 
lowing  does  not  properly  suit  greges  sc.  ovium.  Magonem  alii  nau- 
fragio  (sc.  perisse),  alii  a  servis  ipsius  interfectum,  scriptum  reli- 
querunt  (Nep.). 

305.   RHETORICAL  TERMS,  OR  FIGURES  OF  SPEECH. 

Allegory,  a  continued  description  of  one  thing  in  terms  and  in  images 
properly  belonging  to  another ;  e.  g.,  at  jam  tempus  equum  fumantia 
solvere  colla  ( Verg.),  of  concluding  a  book.  A  more  detailed  allegory 
is  seen  in  Horace's  description  (Od.  i.  14)  of  the  State  in  political  difti- 


280  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

culties  under  the  name  of  a  ship  tossed  by  waves.  Essentially,  alle- 
gory is  a  chain  of  metaphors. 

Alliteration,  the  use  in  the  same  sentence  of  several  words  beginning  with  the 
same  letter;  e.  g.,  0  Tite,  tute  Tati,  tibi  tanta,  tyranne,  tulisti  (Enn.). 

Anaphora,  repetition  of  the  same  word  or  grammatical  form  at  the  begin- 
ning of  several  clauses ;  e.  g.,  in  his  templis  atque  tectis  dux  Lentulus 
erat  const!  tutus  meis  consiliis.  me  is  laboribus,  mei  capitis  periculis, 
sine  tumultu,  sine  delectu,  sine  armis  (Cic.). 

Antithesis,  contrast ;  e.  g.,  ego  projector,  quod  tu  peccas ;  tu  delinquis,  ego 
arguor;  pro  malefactis  Helena  redeat,  virgo  pereat innocens  (Enn.). 

Antonomasia,  substituting  a  description  for  a  name;  e.  g.,  TydTdes  for 
Diomedes ;  eversor  Karthaginis  for  Scipio ;  Saturnia  for  Juno. 

Aposiopests,  breaking  into  silence;  an  abrupt  pause  after  a  sentence  or 
subject  has  been  begun ;  e.  g.,  Quos  ego— sed  motos  praestat  compo- 
nere  fluctus. 

Apostrophe,  turning  away  to  address  some  person,  or  thing,  who  is  absent 
or  at  least  not  the  proper  object  of  address  at  the  time ;  e.  g.,  o  leges 
Forciae  legesque  Semproniae  (Cic.) :  citae  Mettum  in  diversa  qua- 
drigae distulerant:  at  tu  dictis,  Albane,  maneres  (Verg.) ;  Quid  non 
mortalia  pectora  cogis,  auri  sacra  fames  ? 

Catachrests,  a  wrong  use  of  a  term,  either  to  supply  the  place  of  a  non-exist- 
ing word,  e.  g.,  parricida  for  the  murderer  of  a  brother ;  or  to  put  a  differ- 
ent aspect  on  a  case ;  e.  g.,  virtus  for  temeritas,  liberalitas  for  luxuria. 

Chiasm,  making  a  X  (Chi),  i.  e.,  crossing,  where  a  second  and  correspond- 
ing set  of  words  are  stated  in  inverse  order  to  that  of  the  first  set; 
e.  g.,  multa  quae  nostra  causa  non  facimus,  facimus  causa  amicorum 
(Cic.).  See  §  260,  6. 

Climax  (or  gradatio),  ladder,  a  series  of  words  or  expressions  each  stronger 
than  the  preceding :  e.  g.,  nihil  agis,  nihil  moliris,  nihil  cogitas,  quod 
ego  non  modo  audiam,  sed  etiam  videam  planeque  sentiam  (Cic.). 

Enallage,  change,  i.  e.,  the  use  of  a  more  general  word  for  a  specific  word ; 
e.  g.,  Poenus  for  Hannibal,  urbs  for  Roma;  vos,  o  Calliope. 

Epexegests,  additional  explanation,  applied  to  such  usages  as  habere  in  lo- 
ricam  donat  habere  viro  (Verg.),  or  to  the  subordinate  clause  in  pacem 
amicitiamque  hortatus  est,  ut  cum  rege  in  gratiam  rediret  (Nep.). 

Euphemism,  the  use  of  softened  language  to  express  what  is  disagreeable 
or  distressing. 

Homoeoteleuton,  like  ending  of  several  clauses;  e.  g.,  in  muros  statim 
curritur,  exercitus  a  sociis  accersitur,  dilectus  juventuti  denuntia- 
tur ;  neminem  alteri  posse  dare  in  matrimonium  nisi  penes  quern 
sit  patrimonium. 

Homonymia,  applicability  of  the  same  word  to  different  things ;  such  words 
are  called  h  oniony  ma ;  e.  g.,  taurus  may  be  an  animal,  a  mountain,  a 
constellation,  name  of  a  man,  or  root  of  a  tree. 


GRAMMATICAL  AND   RHETORICAL   TERMS.        281 

Hyperbole,  exaggeration;  e.  g.,  gemini  minantur  in  caelum  scopuli 
(Verg.) ;  or  the  description  of  Camilla's  swiftness  ( Aen.  vii.  808-811). 

Hysteron  proteron,  putting  the  former  later,  when  that  which  naturally 
comes  first  is  mentioned  last;  e.  g.,  moriamur  et  in  media  arma 
ruanms  (Verg.). 

Irony,  dissimulation,  says  one  thing  and  means  another,  but  so  as  to 
let  the  real  meaning  be  understood;  e.  g.,  in  balneis  delituerunt: 
testis  egregios !  dein  temere  prosiluerunt ;  homines  temperantis  ! 
(Cic.  Caec.  26) ;  meque  timoris  argue  tu,  Drance,  quando  tot  stragis 
acervos  Teucrorum  tua  dextra  dedit !  (Verg.) 

Litotes,  plainness,  states  less  than  is  actually  meant ;  e.  g.,  non  nego 
instead  of  aio ;  non  indoctus  for  dootus ;  non  laudo  for  culpo. 

Metaphor  (or  translatio),  transference  of  a  term  from  its  proper  subject 
to  another,  on  account  of  some  resemblance  or  analogy  between  their 
meanings ;  frequently  the  application  of  a  physical  or  concrete  term 
to  a  mental  or  abstract  subject;  e.  g.,  sitiunt  segetes;  asper  homo 
(rough,  i.  e.,-ill-tempered) ;  incensus  ira,  on  fire  with  rag  e ;  eloquentiae 
fulmina.  It  differs  from  allegory  only  by  being  less  sustained,  and  by 
being  worked  into  the  discourse  instead  of  being  an  independent  fable. 
Almost  all  language  is  metaphor,  more  or  less  vivid  and  conscious. 

Metonymy,  change  of  name,  applied  to  such  expressions  as  Neptunus  for 
sea  ;  Vulcanus  for  fire  ;  Ceres  for  corn  ;  bene  moratae  urbes  for  bene 
morati  urbis  cives ;  Graecia  for  Graeci ;  Vergilius  for  carmina  Ver- 
gili;  proximus  ardet  Ucalegon,  where  Ucalegon  is  for  Ucalegon's 
house.  Among  the  substitutions  of  names  made  by  Metonymy  are 
that  of  the  cause  for  the  effect;  the  container  for  what  is  contained; 
the  property  for  the  substance  ;  the  sign  for  the  thing  signified :  and 
vice  versa :  also,  the  parts  of  the  body  for  certain  affections ;  the  pos- 
sessor for  the  thing  possessed ;  the  place  and  time  for  the  persons 
and  things  which  they  comprise. 

Onomatopoeia,  name  making,  in  modern  writers  applied  only  to  making 
names  from  the  sounds  which  they  are  to  denote ;  e.  g.,  ulula,  howler  ; 
murmur;  clangor;  hirrire  (of  a  dog  snarling). 

Oxymoron,  keen,  though  apparently  foolish,  applied  to  such  expressions, 
uniting  seeming  contraries,  as  insaniens  sapientia ;  strenua  inertia ; 
splendide  mendax :  et  absentes  adsunt  et  egentes  abundant  et  im- 
becilli  valent  et,  quod  difiicilius  dictu  est,  mortui  vivunt  (Cic. 
Lael.  7). 

Paronomasia  (adnominatio),  playing  upon  the  sound  of  words  ;  punning ; 
e.  g.,  consul  ipse  parvo  animo  et  pravo,  facie  magis  quam  facetiis 
ridiculus  (Cic.).  Inceptio  est  amentium  haud  amantium  (Ter.). 
Praetor  iste  vel  potius  praedo  sociorum.  Cui  quod  libet,  hoc  licet. 
Hunc  avium  dulcedo  ducit  ad  avium. 

Periphrasis,  roundabout  expression,  circumlocution;  e.  g.,  fac  discas  for 
24* 


282  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

disce ;  vos  oratos  volo  for  vos  oro ;  Scipionis  providentia  Karthaginis 

opes  fregit  for  Scipio  Karthaginem  fregit. 
Prosopopoeia,  personification,  representing  inanimate  things  as  living  and 

acting;  e.  g.,  crudelitatis  mater  avaritia'st,  pater  furor.    Si  pa^ria 

mea  loquatur,   "  M.  Tulli,  quid  agis?"   (Cic.)-   Extemplo  Libyae 

magnas  it  Fama  per  urbes  (Verg.). 
SimTle  or  Parabole,  an  apt  comparison  illustrating  a  statement;  e.  g.,  per 

urbes  Hannibal  Italos  ceu  flamma  per  taedas  vel  Eurus  per  Siculas 

equitavit  undas  (Hor.). 
Solecism,  a  grammatical  blunder  in  matters  of  syntax ;    "  Quintilian 

instances  non  feceris  for  ne  feceris ;  hie  aut  ille  for  hio  an  ille  ;  eo 

intus  and  intro  sum  for  eo  intro  and  intus  sum." 
Synecdoche,  when  the  whole  is  understood  along  with  (i.  e.,  under  the 

name  of)  a  part ;  e.  g.,  puppis  for  navis ;  tectum  for  domus;  mucro 

or  ferrum  for  gladius  ;  caput  for  homo. 
Synonymia,  using  different  words  or  expressions  for  the  same  meaning  ; 

e.  g.,  non  feram,  non  patiar,  non  sinam  (Cic.).    Words  of  the  same  or 

like  meaning  are  called  synonyma ;  e.  g.,  gladius  with  ensis ;  scutum 

with  clipeus  ;  mare  with  pontus. 
Tautology,  repetition  of  the  same  thing ;  sometimes  used  as  identical  with 

synonymia ;  sometimes  applied  to  repetitions  of  the  same  word ;  e.  g., 

non  solum  igitur  illud  judicium  judicii  simile,  judices,  non  fuit 

(Cic.).    Nam  cujus  rationis  ratio  non  exstat,  ei  rationi  non  est 

fidem  habere  (Cornif.). 

Whether  the  use  of  any  of  these  figures  is  legitimate  or  proper  depends 
on  the  context  and  the  occasion,  and  oil  general  considerations  of  intelligi- 
bility, good  sense,  vigorous  expression,  propriety,  habit  of  speakers  and 
writers,  and  the  like.  A  name  confers  no  license,  and  a  grammatical  or 
rhetorical  figure  is  a  name  of  a  fact,  not  of  a  law.  (Roby,  in  part.) 

MONEY,  WEIGHTS,  AND   MEASURES. 
306.  VALUE  OF  COINS. 

1.  From  451  to  269  B.  c. : 

The  as  libralis,  of  copper about  10  cents. 

2.  From  269  to  217  B.  C. : 

The  as  sextantarius,  of  copper "  2  cents. 

The  sestertius,  of  silver "  5  cents. 

The  denarius,  of  silver "  19  cents. 

3.  From  217  to  30  B.  C. : 

The  sestertius,  of  silver "       4  cents. 

The  denarius,  of  silver "    16!  cents. 

The  aureus,  of  gold  (25  denarii,  or  100  sestertii) "          $4.17. 

Hence  mille  sestertium "        $41.67. 

decies  sestertium  (a  million  sestertii) "  $41,667.00. 


MONEY  AND   INTEREST.  283 

307.   THE  NAMING   OF  SUMS  OF  MONEY. 

1.  The  ordinary  unit  of  reckoning  was  the  sestertius  or  nummus ;  in 
full,  sestertius  nummus.    Up  to  two  thousand,  the  nouns  sestertii  or 
nummi  are  used:  as,  decem  sestertii,  ten  sesterces ;  ducenti  nummi,  two 
hundred  sesterces;  quini  sestertii,  jive  sesterces  each.    For  higher  num- 
bers, in  thousands  up  to  a  million,  a  neuter  noun  in  the  plural  number, 
sestertia,  was  used :  as,  septem  sestertia,  seven  thousand  sesterces,  instead 
of  septem  millia  sestertium ;  or  both  millia  and  sestertia  are  found :  as, 
dena  millia  sestertia,  ten  thousand  sesterces ;  or,  again,  in  poetry  millia 
is  used  with  an  ellipsis  of  sestertium :  as,  mullum  sex  millibus  emit,  he 
bought  a  mullet  for  six  thousand  sesterces.    Horace  has  bis  dena  sestertia 
minimum,  twenty  thousand  sesterces. 

2.  In  sums  of  a  million  and  upwards,  numeral  adverbs  are  employed :  as, 
decies  centum  (or  centena)  millia  sestertium.    Usually  the  numeral  ad- 
verb and  sestertium  are  put  alone :  as,  deoies  sestertium,  a  million  ses- 
terces; or,  when  the  context  is  clear,  the  adverb  is  used  alone,  as  simply 
decies ;  we  find  also,  for  the  same  sum  of  a  million  sesterces,  decies  centena 
millia  or  decies  centena.    In  such  expressions,  sestertium  was  taken  to 
be  a  neuter  noun,  in  the  singular  number :  as,  (nominative)  sestertium 
quadragies  relinquitur,  four  million  sesterces  are  left;  (accusative)  ses- 
tertium quadragies  accepi,  /  have  received  four  million  sesterces ;  (abla- 
tive) sestertio  decies  fundum  emi,  /  have  bought  an  estate  for  a  million 
sesterces;  in  sestertio  vicies  egere,  to  be  poor  in  the  possession  of  two 
million  sesterces. 

Abbreviations  are  used :  as,  HS^DC.  =  600 sesterces ;  HS.  DC.  =  600,000 
sesterces  (or  600  sestertia) ;  HS.  |DC|  =  60,000,000  sesterces.  See  g  55, 13 ; 
§317,8. 

308.  INTEREST. 

The  as  and  its  fractional  parts  were  used  in  designating  rates  of  interest. 
Thus,  the  interest  being  paid  monthly  at  the  rate  of  so  much  per  100  asses, 

unciae  usurae         =  ^  per  cent,  per  month  =    1  per  cent,  per  annum  ; 

sextantes  usurae     =  £       " 

quadrantes  usurae  =  i       "  =3 

and  so  on  ; 
asses  usurae  =  1        "  "  =12      " 

Asses  usurae  were  also  called  centesimae ;  binae  centesimae  =  2  per 
cent,  per  month  =  24  per  cent. ;  quaternae  centesimae  =  48  per  cent,  per 
annum.  Horace  says,  quinas  Me  capiti  mercedes  exsecat  (i.  e.,  quinas 
centesimas),  this  man  slices  off  60  per  cent,  from  the  capital,  because  in 
lending  money  he  deducts  interest  at  the  rate  of  five  per  cent,  per  month. 

Unciarum  faenus,  the  yearly  interest  legalized  by  the  Twelve  Tables,  was 
probably  one  uncia  per  as,  or  8$  per  cent.,  for  the  old  year  of  ten  months. 


284  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

309.   WEIGHTS. 

1.  The  unit  or  as  of  weight  was  the  libra,  or  Roman  pound,  the  sup- 
posed weight  which  a  man  could  support  on  his  hand  horizontally  extended. 
It  was  duodecimally  divided,  the  uncia,  or  ounce,  being  its  12th  part,  the 
scriptulum  or  scrupulum,  scruple,  its  288th  part.    Its  weight  was  about 
5050  grains  English,  or  about  $  pound  Troy. 

2.  The  Greek  system  also  was  used  in  the  imperial  times,  the  unit  being 
a  denarius,  called  from  the  Greek  drachma,  of  which  the  libra  contained 
until  Nero's  time  84 ;  afterwards  96.    This  latter  drachma  contained  three 
scriptula,  the  scriptulum  two  oboli,  the  obolus  three  siliquae. 

310.  MEASURES  OF  LENGTH. 

1.  The  unit  or  as  of  length  was  pes,  the  foot ;  digitus  was  a  finger- 
breadth;  palmus,  a  hand-breadth,  was  four  digits;  pes,  a  foot,  was  four 
palms  or  sixteen  digits. 

2.  In  the  duodecimal  division  of  the  foot,  uncia,  the  twelfth  part,  was 
an  inch.    Three  unciae  niade'a  palmus.    Two  feet  are  sometimes  called 
dupondius ;  two  and  a  half  feet,  sestertius,  also  gradus,  or  step  ;  one  and 
a  half  feet,  sesquipes,  called  also  cubitus,  the  fore-arm. 

Ulna,  an  ell,  is  sometimes  a  synonym  of  cubitus ;  but  it  sometimes 
means  the  full  span  of  a  man's  arms,  or  six  feet. 

3.  Land  was  measured  out  by  the  pertica  or  decempeda,  a  rod  of  ten 
feet.    The  actus  (i.  e.,  the  furrow  made  at  one  drawing  (driving)  of  the 
plough-oxen)  measured  twelve  rods. 

4.  The  unit  of  distance  was  the  passus,  pace,  consisting  of  two  gradus 
or  steps,  hence  of  five  feet.    It  represents  the  distance  from  the  point 
where,  in  walking,  the  same  foot  is  taken  up  to  the  point  where  it  is  put 
down.    Mille  passus  (or  millia  passuum  or  millia)  was  the  Roman  mile, 
4850  English  feet,  or  .919  English  mile.    The  pes  was  11.6  English  inches. 

The  stadium,  or  furlong,  was  J  of  a  Roman  mile. 

311.  MEASURES  OF  SURFACE. 

1.  The  as  of  superficial  measure  was  the  jugerum.     It  contained  2 
square  actus,  or  28,800  square  feet ;  each  actus  144  square  rods  or  perticae. 
The  square  rod  was  called  a  scrupulum,  or  decempeda  quadrata.    Two 
jugera  made  an  heredium ;  100  heredia  formed  a  centuria ;  4  oenturiae 
a  saltus. 

2.  The  pes  quadratus  was  .94  English  square  foot ;  the  jugerum  almost 
|  of  an  English  acre ;  an  heredium  nearly  an  acre  and  a  quarter. 

312.   MEASURES  'OF  CAPACITY. 

1.  The  unit  of  liquid  measure  was  the  quadrantal,  a  vessel  of  a  cubit 
foot  in  content,  after  Cicero's  time  called  the  amphora.    The  amphora  = 


WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  AND   TIME.  285 

two  urnae ;  the  urna  =  four  congii ;  the  congius  =  six  sextarii ;  the  sex- 
tarius  =  two  heminae ;  the  hemina  =  two  quartarii;  the  quartarius  = 
two  acetabula.  Twenty  amphorae  made  a  culeus.  The  amphora  was 
about  5|  gallons  English. 

2.  The  duodecimal  system  was  applied  to  the  sextarius,  which  was  a 
little  less  than  an  English  pint  (.96).    Its  twelfth,  or  uncia,  was  a  cyathus, 
not  quite  half  an  ordinary  wine-glass.    The  triens  was  4  cyathi;  the 
quadrans,  3  cyathi ;  the  sextans,  2  cyathi ;  and  so  on. 

3.  The  unit  of  dry  measure  was  the  modius,  nearly  one  peck,  or  J 
bushel,  English.    It  held  two  semodii  or  16  sextarii.    The  divisions  of  the 
sextarius  (sometimes  called  librarius)  were  the  same  as  in  liquid  measure. 

COMPUTATION  OF  TIME. 

313.  1.  The  Romans'  civil  day,  as  recognized  in  law,  was  from  midnight 
to  midnight ;  a  natural  day,  from  sunrise  to  sunset.  The  natural  day  was 
divided  into  twelfths,  called  horae,  which  were  therefore  of  different  abso- 
lute lengths  according  to  the  time  of  year.  From  December  23d,  when  the 
day  at  Rome  was,  according  to  modern  reckoning,  8  hours  54  minutes  long, 
and  the  Roman  hour  was  44J  minutes,  the  length  increased  up  to  the  25th 
of  June,  when  the  day  was  15  hours  6  minutes,  and  the  Roman  hour  7/H 
minutes.  At  the  equinoxes,  23d.  March,  25th.  September,  the  Roman 
hour  was  of  the  same  length  as  our  own.  The  civil  day  is  sometimes 
spoken  of  as  divided  into  twenty-four  hours. 

2.  The  night  was  for  military  purposes  divided  into  four  watches  (vigilia 
prima,  etc.)  of  equal  length.    And  a  similar  division  of  the  day  into  four 
parts  is  also  implied  by  Varro's  account  of  the  praetor's  marshal  crying  the 
third  hour,  noon,  and  the  ninth  hour. 

3.  The  division  of  time  into  weeks  of  seven  days  with  distinct  names  was 
not  used  by  the  Romans  before  the  introduction  of  Christianity.    The 
months  were  distinguished  by  the  names  adopted  by  us  from  the  Romans, 
excepting  that,  before  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Augustus,  Julius  and  Au- 
gustus had  the  names  of  Quinctllis  and  Sextilis  (i.  e.,  fifth  and  sixth 
month,  March  being  the  first).    The  days  of  the  month  were  computed 
from  three  leading  days  in  each,  which  were  called  respectively  Calendae 
(KaL),  Nonae  (Non.),  and  Idus  (Id.) ;  to  these  the  name  of  the  month  was 
appended  as  an  adjective.    The  Calendae  was  the  first  day  of  every  month  ; 
the  Nonae  and  Idus  the  fifth  and  thirteenth,  except  in  the  months  of 
March,  May,  July,  and  October,  in  which  they  were  the  seventh  and 
fifteenth  respectively.*    From  these  days  they  counted  backwards,  the 
days  between  the  1st  and  the  Nones  being  reckoned  as  so  many  days  before 

*  In  March,  July,  October,  May, 
The  Ides  were  on  the  fifteenth  day, 
The  Nones  upon  the  seventh,  we  say. 
(For  other  months,  take  two  away.) 


286  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

the  Noues :  the  days  between  the  Nones  and  Ides  as  so  many  days  before 
the  Ides ;  and  the  remaining  days  of  the  month  as  so  many  days  before  the 
Kalends  of  the  next  month.  The  day  immediately  preceding  any  of  these 
reckoning  points  was  called  pridie  Nonas,  etc. ;  the  day  next  but  one 
before  was  the  third  day  before  (in  consequence  of  the  Nones,  etc.,  being 
themselves  included  in  the  reckoning),  and  so  on. 

4.  There  are  two  abbreviated  modes  of  denoting  the  date ;  e.  g.,  the  27th 
of  March  might  be  marked  as  vi  Kal.  Apr.,  or  a.  d.  vi  Kal.  Apr.    The  first 
is  for  sexto  (die  ante)  Kalendas  Apriles ;  the  second  for  ante  diem  sextum 
Ealendas  Apriles.    The  latter  expression  appears  to  have  originally  signi- 
fied before  (on  the  sixth  day)  the  Kalends  of  April ;  the  exact  day  being 
thrown  in  parenthetically,  and  attracted  from  the  ablative  into  the  accusa- 
tive case  in  consequence  of  following  ante.    Similarly  we  find  the  date 
sometimes  denoted  by  the  number  of  days  preceding  a  festival :  as,  a.  d.  v. 
Terminalia.  i.  e.,  19th  Feb.  (the  festival  of  the  god  of  boundaries  being  on 
the  23d  Feb.).    This  expression  was  considered  as  one  word,  before  which 
in  or  ex  may  stand  :  as,  Ex  ante  diem  iii  Nonas  Junias  usque  ad  pridie 
Kalendas  Septembres,  from  the  3d  June  to  the  ttst,  August;   differre 
aliquid  in  ante  diem  xv  Kalendas  Novembres,  to  put  off  something  to  the 
18th  October. 

5.  The  readiest  way  of  reckoning  the  day  is, 

1.  If  the  date  lie  between  the  Kalends  and  Nones,  or  between  the  Nones 
and  Ides,  to  subtract  the  number  of  the  day  mentioned  from  the  number  of 
the  day  on  which  the  Nones  or  Ides  fall,  and  add  one  (for  the  inclusive 
reckoning). 

2.  If  the  date  lie  between  the  Ides  and  the  Kalends,  to  subtract  the 
number  of  the  day  mentioned  from  the  number  of  the  days  in  the  month,  and 
add  two  (i.  e.,  one  for  the  inclusive  reckoning,  and  one  because  the  Kalends 
are  not  the  last  of  the  month  in  which  the  date  lies,  but  the  first  of  the 
following  month). 

6.  In  leap  year  the  intercalated  day  was  counted  between  a.  d.  vi  Kal. 
Mart,  and  a.  d.  vii  Kal.  Mart.,  and  called  a.  d.  bissextum  Kal.  Mart. 
(Hence  the  name  of  leap  year,  annus  bissextllis.) 

7.  Before  the  reformation  of  the  Calendar  by  Julius  Caesar,  B.  c.  45, 
the  number  of  days  in  the  months  was  in  March,  May,  July,  and  October, 
31 ;  in  February  28 ;  in  all  the  rest  29.    As  these  four  months  were  two  days 
longer,  the  Nones  and  Ides  were  two  days  later.    This  should  be  remem- 
bered in  reading  Cicero's  letters,  many  of  which  were  written  before  45  B.  c. 
After  that  year  the  number  of  days  in  each  month  was  the  same  as  now. 

8.  The  year  was  designated  by  the  names  of  the  consuls  for  that  year. 
Thus,  Vergil  was  born  M.  Licinio  Crasso  et  Cn.  Fompeio  Magno  consulibus 
(abl.  absol.),  in  the  consulship  of  Crassus  and  Pompey.    Sometimes  events 
are  dated  in  their  year  after  the  founding  of  the  city  (A.  u.  c.,  u.  c.,  or  A.). 


COMPUTATION  OF  TIME. 


287 


9.  The  following  Table  supposes  the  date  to  be  subsequent  to  B.  C.  45 
The  usual  abbreviated  form  is  given. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  Kalendae,  Nonae,  and  Idus  are  feminine, 
and  the  months  adjectives;  that  the  dates  Kalendis,  Nonis,  and  Idibus  (on 
the  first,  fifth,  etc.)  are  in  the  ablative ;  and  that  a.  d.  vi  Non.  Mart., 
etc.,  is  for  ante  diem  sextum  Nonas  Martias. 


og^&w                  «  g  g  w               S  g  "  g                   § 

ii  ill       HII      alii        i 

1.    KALENDIS. 

KALENDIS.     - 

KALENDIS.    • 

KALENDIS.  • 

2.  a.  d.  iv.  Non. 

a.  d.  iv.  Non. 

a.  d.  vi.  Non. 

a.  d.  iv.  Non. 

3.  a.  d.  iii.  Non. 

a.  d.  iii.  Non. 

P;     a.  d.  v.  Non. 

a.  d.  iii.  Non. 

4.  Prid.  Non. 

Prid.  Non. 

•f    a.d.  iv.  Non. 

Prid.  Non. 

5.      NONIS. 

8         NONIS. 

j-    a.  d.  iii.  Non. 

|          NONIS. 

6.  a.  d.  viii.  Id. 

fi.  a.  d.  viii.  Id. 

tPrid.  Non. 

-    a.  d.  viii.  Id. 

7.  a.  d.  vii.  Id. 

.£  a.  d.  vii.  Id. 

.    r              IsONIS. 

J3     a.  d.  vii.  Id. 

8.  a.  d.  vi.  Id. 

^  a.d.vi.Id. 

g     a.  d.  viii.  Id. 

j-    a.d.  vi.  Id. 

9.  a.  d.  v.  Id. 

p    a.  d.  v.  Id. 

"1    a.  d.  vii.  Id. 

|     a.  d.  v.  Id. 

10.  a.  d.  iv.  Id. 

*   a.d.iv.Id. 

&    a.d.vi.Id. 

.-    a.d.iv.Id. 

11.  a.  d.  iii.  Id. 

a.  d.  iii.  Id. 

^    a.  d.  v.  Id. 

1     a.  d.  iii.  Id. 

12.  Prid.  Id. 

Prid.  Id. 

a.  d.  iv.  Id. 

S     Prid.  Id. 

13.     IDIBUS. 

IDIBUS. 

a.  d.  iii.  Id. 

IDIBUS. 

14.  a.  d.  xix.  Kal.   '• 

a.  d.  xviii.  Kal.: 

Prid.  Id. 

a.  d.  xvi.  Kal.  : 

15.  a.  d.  xviii.  Kal. 

a.  d.  xvii.  Kal. 

IDIBUS. 

a.  d.  xv.  Kal. 

16.  a.  d.  xvii.  Kal. 

a.  d.  xvi.  Kal. 

a.  d.  xvii.  Kal.  1 

a.  d.  xiv.  Kal. 

17.  a.  d.  xvi.  Kal. 

a.  d.  xv.  Kal. 

a.  d.  xvi.  Kal. 

a.  d.  xiii.  Kal. 

18.  a.  d.  xv.  Kal. 

a.  d.  xiv.  Kal. 

a.  d.  xv.  Kal. 

a.  d.  xii.  Kal. 

19.  a.  d.  xiv.  Kal. 

a.  d.  xiii.  Kal. 

«    a.  d.  xiv.  Kal. 

a.  d.  xi.  Kal. 

20.  a.  d.  xiii.  Kal. 

p    a.  d.  xii.  Kal. 

0    a.  d.  xiii.  Kal. 

>     a.  d.  x.  Kal. 

21.  a.  d.  xii.  Kal. 

•3    a.  d.  xi.  Kal. 

-g"    a.  d.  xii.  Kal. 

fe     a.  d.  ix.  Kal. 

22.  a.  d.  xi.  Kal. 

-£  a.  d.  x.  Kal. 

O    a.  d.  xi.  Kal. 

tS    a.  d.  viii.  Kal. 

23.  a.  d.  x.  Kal. 

$    a.d.  ix.  Kal. 

3     a.  d.  x.  Kal. 

1.41     a.d.  vii.  Kal. 

24.  a.  d.  ix.  Kal. 

^    a.  d.  viii.  Kal. 

*"l    a.  d.  ix.  Kal. 

r    a.d.vi.Kal. 

25.  a.  d.  viii.  Kal. 

£    a.  d.  vii.  Kal. 

2     a.  d.  viii.  Kal. 

s     a.d.v.Kal.* 

26.  a.  d.  vii.  Kal. 

a.  d.  vi.  Kal. 

^    a.d.  vii.  Kal. 

r    a.d.  iv.  Kal. 

27.  a.  d.  vi.  Kal. 

a.  d.  v.  Kal. 

a.  d.  vi.  Kal. 

|-    a.  d.  iii.  Kal. 

28.  a.  d.  v.  Kal. 

a.  d.  iv.  Kal. 

a.  d.  v.  Kal. 

*    Prid.  Kal. 

29.  a.  d.  iv.  Kal. 

a.  d.  iii.  Kal. 

a.  d.  iv.  Kal. 

30.  a.  d.  iii.  Kal. 

Prid.  Kal. 

a.  d.  iii.  Kal. 

81.  Prid.  Kal. 

Prid.  Kal. 

*  In  leap  year,  the  24th  Feb.  was  called  a.  d.  bis  sextum  Kal.  Mart. ;  the 
25th,  a.  d.  vi.  Kal.  Mart.  ;  the  26th,  a.  d.  v.  Kal.  Mart.  ;  the  27th,  a.  d.  iv.  Kal. 
Mart. ;  the  28th,  a.  d.  iii.  Kal.  Mart. ;  the  2gth,  Prid.  Kal.  Mart.  The  first 
twenty-three  days  were  designated  as  in  other  years. 


288  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

PRINCIPAL   EXTANT   LATIN   AUTHORS. 

314.   PRAE-CICERONIAN  AGE. 

Cn.  Naevius,  a  Latin  of  Campania,  d.  199  B.  c.  Dramatic  and  epic 
poems ;  only  fragments  extant. 

T.  Maccius  Plautus,  b.  254  B.  c.,  at  Sassina  in  Umbria,  d.  184  B.  c. 
Comedies,  20  of  which  are  extant,  many  being  written  201-189  B.  c. 

Q.  Ennius,  b.  239  B.  c.,  at  Rudiae  in  Calabria,  d.  169  B.  c.  Poems  epic 
and  dramatic ;  only  fragments  extant. 

M.  Porcius  Cato  (Censorinus),  b.  234  B.  c.,  at  Tusculum,  d.  149  B.  c. 
History,  speeches,  and  treatise  on  farming;  this  treatise  and  fragments 
extant. 

P.  Terentius,  b.  185  B.  c.,  at  Carthage,  d.  159  B.  c.  Six  comedies ;  all 
preserved. 

L.  Attius  (or  Accius),  b.  170  B.  c.,  d.  circa  104  B.  c.  Tragedies  and  other 
poems  ;  fragments  only  extant. 

C.  Lucllius,  b.  148  B.  c.,  at  Suessa  Aurunca  in  Campania,  d.  103  B.  c. 
Satires ;  only  fragments  extant. 


315.    GOLDEN  AGE. 
1.  Ciceronian: 

CorntfTcius,  probable  name  of  the  author  of  a  treatise  on  rhetoric  ad- 
dressed to  C.  Herennius  and  printed  with  Cicero's  works.  Possibly  Q. 
Cornificius  trib.  pi.  69  B.  C. 

M.  Terentius  Varro,  b.  116  B.  c.,  at  Reate,  d.  27  B.  c.  Antiquarian  and 
grammatical  writings;  satires,  partly  in  verse;  a  treatise  on  farming. 
Extant:  part  of  a  work  on  the  Latin  language  (written  cir.  43  B.  c.),  and 
the  treatise  de  re  rastica  (written  37  B.  c.) :  fragments  only  of  others. 

M.  Tullius  Cicero,  b.  106  B.  c.,  at  Tusculum,  d.  43  B.  c.  Speeches, 
treatises  on  rhetoric  and  philosophy,  and  private  letters.  58  speeches 
(some  mutilated),  most  of  the  treatises,  and  many  letters,  are  extant. 
Speeches  from  81  B.  c. ;  treatises  from  55  B.  c»,  except  a  work  on  rhetoric 
written  in  his  youth ;  letters  from  68  B.  c. :  all  reaching  nearly  to  his  death. 
Fragments  only  of  his  poems  extant. 

Q.  Tullius  Cicero,  b.  102  B.  c.,  d.  43  B.  c.  A  short  political  essay  de 
petitione  consulates  :  extant  (with  his  brother's  writings). 

C.  Julius  Caesar,  b.  100  B.  c.,  d.  44  B.  c.  Speeches,  history,  treatises  on 
astronomy  and  grammar ;  only  histories  (or  rather  notes  for  history)  of  his 
own  campaigns  extant. 

A.  Hirtius,  d.  43  B.  c.,  wrote  8th  book  of  Caesar  de  Bello  Gallico,  and 
Bellum  Alexandrinum :  both  extant,  printed  with  Caesar. 

Cornelius  Nepos,  b.  104  to  94  B.  c.,  near  the  Po,  d.  after  32  B.  c.  History 
in  the  form  of  biographies :  some  extant. 


PRINCIPAL  LATIN  AUTHORS.  289 

T.  Lucretius  Carus,  b.  90  B.  c.,  d.  55  B.  c.    Philosophical  poem :  extant. 

C.  Valerius  Catullus,  b.  87  B.  c.  at  Verona,  d.  54  B.  c.  Poems,  of 
varied  character;  epic,  lyric,  occasional :  extant. 

Publilius  Syrus  of  Antioch,  cir.  45  B.  c.  Mimes.  Extant  a  collection 
of  proverbial  lines  extracted  from  them. 

C.  Sallustius  Crispus,  b.  87  B.  c.,  at  Amiternum,  d.  34  B.  c.  History. 
Extant:  histories  of  wars  with  Catiline  and  with  Jugurtha,  and  some 
speeches  from  the  other  histories. 

M.  Caelius  M.  F.  Kufus,  b.  85-82  B.  c.,  d.  cir.  48  B.  c.  Speeches.  Some 
lively  letters  to  Cicero  are  extant,  forming  Book  viii.  of  Cic.  ad  Famili- 
ares. 

Among  other  correspondents  of  Cicero,  several  of  whose  letters  have 
come  to  us  with  Cicero's,  are  L.  Munatius  Plancus  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  Book 
x.) ;  C.  Asinius  Pollio  (same  Book) ;  D.  Brutus  (Book  xi.) ;  C.  Cassius 
(Book  xii.) ;  P.  Lentulus  (ibid.) ;  M.  Junius  Brutus  (Cic.  Epist.  ad  M. 
JBrutum).  One  or  two  letters  aj§o  occur  from  C.  Jul.  Caesar,  Cn.  Pompeius, 
H.  Forcius  Cato,  M.  Antonius,  M.  Lepidus,  Q.  Metellus  Nepos,  Matius, 
Caeciua,  Cicero  filius. 

2.  Augustan: 

P.  Vergilius  Maro,  b.  70  B.  c.,  at  Andes,  near  Mantua,  d.  19  B.  c. 
Rural  and  epic  poems,  viz.,  Bucoltca  (B.  c.  41-38) ;  Georgtca  (B.  c.  37-30) ; 
Aeneis  (begun  cir.  B.  c.  26;  left  unfinished  at  his  death):  all  extant. 
Some  other  smaller  poems,  partly  satirical,  which  have  been  ascribed  to 
him,  are  extant. 

Q.  Horatius  Flaccus,  b.  65  B.  c.,  at  Venusia,  d.  8  B.  c.  Poems  lyrical 
and  satirical  or  didactic ;  partly  in  the  form  of  epistles ;  all  extant. 

T.  LTvius,  b.  59  B.  c.,  at  Patavium,  d.  16  A.  D.  History  of  Rome  from 
the  foundation  of  the  city  to  the  death  of  Drusus  (9  B.  c.),  in  142  books, 
of  which  35  books  (viz.,  i.-x.,  xx.-xlv.)  only  are  extant. 

Albius  Tibullus,  b.  cir.  54  B.  c.,  d.  19  B.  c.  Poems  chiefly  amatory. 
Other  poems  are  printed  with  Tibullus',  especially  those  of 

Lygdamus,  b.  cir.  43  B.  C.    Amatory  poems. 

Sextus  Propertius,  b.  cir.  49  B.  c.,  in  Umbria,  d.  after  16  B.  c.  Poems 
chiefly  amatory ;  all  extant. 

L.  Annaeus  Seneca  (the  father),  b.  cir.  54  B.  c.,  at  Corduba,  d.  cir.  38 
A.  D.  Wrote  in  old  age  reminiscences  and  specimens  of  the  exercises  of 
rhetorical  schools,  called  Suasoriae  and  Controversiae ;  partly  extant. 
(Often  called  Seneca  Rhetor  to  distinguish  him  from  his  son.) 

Vitruvius  Pollio,  cir.  14  B.  c.  Wrote  a  work  on  Architecture,  still 
extant. 

P.  Ovidius  Naso,  b.  43  B.  c.,  at  Sulrao,  d.  17  A.  D.  Poems  amatory 
(B.  C.  14-1  A.  D.),  mythological  and  antiquarian  (A.  D.  2-8),  and  elegiac 
(A.  D.  9-16) ;  all  extant.  A  tragedy  which  he  wrote  is  not  extant. 

Gratius.    Poem  on  hunting ;  extant  probably  only  in  part. 
25  T 


290  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

Manillas.  Poem  on  astronomy  written  about  the  end  of  Augustus's 
reign ;  extant. 

316.  SILVER  AGE. 

1.  Early: 

T.  Claudius  Caesar  Germanicus,  b.  15  B.  c.,  d.  18  A.  D.  Translation  in 
hexameters  of  Aratus's  poem  on  the  constellations. 

M.  Velleius  Paterculus,  a  soldier  before  1  A.  D.,  died  after  30  A.  D. 
Roman  history;  a  short  work,  mainly  extant. 

Valerius  MaxTmus,  cir.  30  A.  D.  Wrote  a  collection  of  anecdotes,  all  or 
almost  all  extant. 

A.  Cornelius  Celsus,  time  of  Tiberius.  Practical  treatises  on  various 
arts ;  work  on  medicine  extant. 

Phaedms  (freedman  of  Augustus).    Fables  in  verse;  mainly  extant. 

L.  Annaeus  Seneca  (the  son),  b.  cir.  4  B.  c.,  d.  65  A.  D.  Philosophy  and 
tragedies ;  both  largely  extant. 

Q.  Curtius  Bufus,  time  of  Claudius.  History  of  Alexander  the  Great; 
not  wholly  extant. 

L.  Junius  Hoderatus  Columella,  of  Gades,  time  between  Celsus  and 
Plinius  major.  Treatise  on  farming,  in  twelve  books  (one  in  verse) ;  all 
extant. 

Q.  Asconius  Pedianus,  cir.  3-88  A.  D.  Notes  on  Cicero's  speeches,  partly 
preserved. 

Pomponius  Mela,  of  Tingentera,  in  Spain,  time  of  Claudius.  Geography ; 
extant. 

A.  Persius  Flaccus,  b.  at  Volaterra  34  A.  D.,  d.  62  A.  D.  Satirical  poetry ; 
extant. 

M.  Annaeus  Lucanus,  b.39  A.  D.,  d.  65  A.  D.  Poem  on  the  war  between 
Pompey  and  Caesar,  called  Pharsalia ;  extant. 

Petronius  Arbtter,  time  of  Nero.  Romance ;  extant  in  large  fragments, 
chiefly  in  prose,  but  partly  in  verse. 

Calpurnius,  time  of  Nero.     Bucolic  poetry ;  extant. 

2.  Age  of  Quintilian  : 

C.  Pllnius  Secundus  (the  elder),  b.  23  A.  D.,  d.  79  A.  D.  History,  Gram- 
mar, Natural  History ;  extant  only  the  Natural  History,  in  37  books. 

C.  Valerius  Flaccus,  d.  before  90  A.  D.  Epic  poems  on  the  Argonautic 
expedition;  extant. 

C.  STlius  ItalTcus,  b.  25  A.  D.,  d.  101  A.  D.  Epic  poem  on  the  second 
Punic  War.  Extant. 

P.  Papinius  Statins,  b.  at  Naples,  cir.  45  A.  D.,  d.  96  A.  D.  Poems,  epic 
and  occasional.  Extant :  Thebais  cir.  80-92  A.  D.  ;  Achilleis  (unfinished), 
and  Silvae,  written  in  the  last  years  of  his  life. 

M.  Valerius  Martialis,  b.  at  Bilbilis,  in  Spain,  cir.  42  A.  D.,  d.  cir.  102 
A.  D.  Epigrams  in  verse ;  extant. 


A  UTHORS.— ABBREVIATIONS.  291 

M.  Fabius  Quinttlianns,  b.  at  Calagurris,  in  Spain,  cir.  35  A.  D.,  d.  cir. 
95  A.  D.  Treatise  on  rhetoric ;  extant. 

Sex  Julius  FrontTnus,  b.  cir.  40  A.  D.,  d.  cir.  103  A.  D.  Military  and 
engineering  works.  Extant :  treatise  on  Roman  aqueducts,  and  anecdotes 
of  military  tactics,  and  fragments. 

3.  Age  of  Tacitus  : 

Cornelius  Tacitus,  b.  cir.  54  A.  D.,  d.  cir.  119  A.  D.  Rhetoric  and  later 
Roman  history.  Extant :  a  considerable  part  of  the  history,  a  life  of  Julius 
Agricola,  and  a  description  of  Germany.  A  dialogue  de  oratoribus  is 
attributed  to  him,  but  its  very  different  style  from  that  of  the  other  works 
of  Tacitus  makes  this  attribution  doubtful. 

C.  Pllnius  Caecilius  Secundus  (the  younger),  b.  at  Comum  62  A.  D.,  d.  113 
A.  D.    Letters  (published  by  himself)  and  a  panegyrical  speech.    Extant. 

D.  Junitfs  Juvenalis,  b.  at  Aqumum,  cir.  67  A.  D.,-d.  cir.  147  A.  D.    (So 
according  to  Friedlander.    Usually  put  ten  or  twelve  years   earlier.) 
Satires;  extant. 

Velius  Longus,  time  of  Trajan.  Grammatical  treatises,  one  of  which  is 
extant. 

HygTnus,  time  of  Trajan.    Land  surveying ;  partly  extant. 

C.  Suetonius  Tranquillus,  b.  oir.  75  A.  D.,  d.  cir.  160  A.  D.  Biographical, 
antiquarian,  and  grammatical  writings.  Partly  extant,  principally  the 
Lives  of  the  Caesars,  written  cir.  120  A.  D.— ROBY. 

317.  ABBREVIATIONS. 
1.  First  names  (Praenomina) 

A.  Aulus.  Mam.  Mamercus. 

App.  Appius,  N.  or  Num.  Numerius. 

C.  Gaius.  P.  Publius. 
Cn.  Gnaeus.  Q.  Quintus. 

D.  Decimus.  S.  or  Sex.  Sextus. 
K.  Kaeso.  Ser.  Servius. 
L.  Lucius.  S.  or  Sp.  Spurius. 
M.  Marcus.  T.  Titus. 
A\..  or  W.  Manius.  Ti.  Tiberius. 

Women's  names  are  expressed  by  inverted  characters :  as,  o  for  Gaia. 

2.  Titles  of  Persons,  etc. 

CES.  or  CENS.    Censor  or  Censores.     D.  Divug. 

Cos.*  Consul  or  Consules.     DBS.  Designatus. 

Coss.  Consules. 

*  "  Not  until  the  3d  cent,  after  Christ  was  cons,  used ;  in  Diocletian's  time 
began  the  custom  of  doubling  the  s  (e.  g.,  conss.)  to  denote  the  plural." 


292  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

F.  Filius,                        RESP.             Respnblica. 

Ill  V  E  C  I Triuxnvir  Reipublicae  R.  P.  P.  R.  Q.  Bespublica  Populi 

1     constituendae.  Roman!  Quiritium. 

IMP.  Imperator.                  S.                   Servus. 

LEG.  Legatus.                       S.  P.  Q.  R.      Senatus    Populusque 

L.  or  LIB.  Libertus,  Liberta.                                 Romanus. 

MAG.  Magister.                    S.  P.  P.  Q.  R.  Senatus  Populus  Ple- 

N.  Nepos.                                                      besque  Romana. 

P.  C.  Patres  Conscript!.       TK.  MIL.        Tribunus  Militum. 

P.  M.  Pontifex  Maximus.     TR.  PL.           Tribunus  Plebis. 

PR.  Praetor,  or  Praetores.  TR.  POT.        Tribunicia  Potestate. 

PROC.  or  PRO.  J  Pro  consule,  i.  e.,  Pro-  X.  V.  Decemvir. 

Cos.  )     consul.                     X.  VIR.  STL.  Decemvir  stlitibus  (i. 

PRO.  PR.  Propraetor.                     JTTDIK.           e.,  litibus)  judican- 

PROQ.  Proquaestor.                                        dis. 

P.  R.  Populus  Romanus.       XV.  V.  S.  P.  Quindecimviri  sacris 

Q.  Quaestor.                                               faciundis. 

QUIR.  Quirites. 

The  name  of  the  tribe  to  which  a  person  belonged  is  sometimes  added  to 
the  name  in  an  abbreviated  form :  thus,  Pup.  for  Pupinia ;  Qui.  or  Quir. 
for  Quirina ;  Esq.  for  Esquilina. 

3.  Sepulchral. 

D.  M.  S.  Dis  Hanibus  Sacrum.  H.  S.  E.  Hie  situs  est. 

D.  S.  P.  De  sua  pecunia.  OB.  Obiit. 

F.  C.  Faciendum  curavit.  P.  C.  Ponendum  curavit. 

H.  C.  E.  Hie  conditus  est.  V.  Vixit. 

4.  In  voting  on  trials.  5.  In  voting  on  laws. 

A.  Absolvo.  A.  P.         Antiquam  (legem)  probo. 

C.  Condemno.  V.  R.         Uti  rogas. 

N.  L.         Non  liquet. 

6.  Epistolary. 

D.  Data  (est  epistola). 

S.  D.         Salutem  dicit. 

S.  P.  D.    Salutem  plurimam  dicit. 

S.  Salutem  (dicit), 

S.  V.  B.  E.  E.  V.    Si  vales,  bene  est :  ego  valeo. 

S.  T.  E.  Q.  V.  B.  E.  E.  Q.  V.    Si  tu  exercitusque  valetis  bene 

est :  ego  quoque  valeo. 
S.  V.  G.  V.    Si  vales  gaudeo.    Valeo. 


ABBREVIATIONS.  293 

7.  In  decrees  of  the  Senate. 

D.  E.  K.  I.  C.    De  ea  re  ita  oensu-  SCR.  ARF.  Scribendo  arfuerunt  (i.  e., 

erunt.  adfuemnt). 

I.  N.    Intercessit  nemo.  V.  F.    Verba  fecit. 
8.  C.    Senatus  consultum. 

8.  Miscellaneous. 

A.  U.  C.  Anno  urbis  conditae.       ITER.       Iterum. 

D.  D.  Dono  dedit.  L.  Libertas. 

DD.  Dederunt.  M.  P.         Mille  passuum. 

D.  D.  D.  Dat,  dicat,  dedioat.          Q.  B.  F.  F.  Q.  S.    Quod  bonum  felix 

F.  F.  F.  Felix,  faustum,  fortuna-  faustumque  sit. 

turn. 

HS  (for  IIS,  i.  e.,  duo  +  semis)  sestertius. 

9.  Modern  Latin. 

A.  C.     Anno  Christi.  i.  q.    id  quod. 

A.  D.     Anno  Domini.  L.  or  Lib.,  Libb.    Liber,  Libri. 

A.  M.    Anno  mundi.  L.  B.  Leotori  Benevolo. 

a.  C.  n.  ante  Christum  natum.  1.  c.     loco  citato. 

p.  C.  n.  post  Christum  natum.  1. 1.     loco  laudato. 

c.    caput,  capitis,  etc.  (chapter).  leg.     lege  or  legatur. 

cet.        cetera.  L.  S.    Locus  Sigilli. 

cf.          confer  or  conferatur.  MS.,  MSS.  Manuscriptum  (or  Manu- 

cir.         circa  (about).  scrip tus,   sc.  liber),   Manuscri- 

Cod.,  Codd.    Codex,  Codices.  pta,  or  manuscript!. 

coll.    collate  or  collatis.  N.  B.      Nota  bene. 

C.  P.  P.  C.  collatis  pecuniis  ponen-  N.  F.     Novum  Foedus. 

dum  curaverunt.  N.  T.  Novum  Testamentum. 

comp.  or  cp.    compara  or  compare-  obs.  observa  or  observetnr. 

tur.  P.  S.  Postscriptum. 

del.  dele  or  deleatur.  q.  v.  quern  (or  quod)  vide. 

D.  O.  M.  Deo  optimo  maximo.          sc.  scilicet. 

ed.,  edd.    editio,  editiones.  sq.,  sqq.  sequenti,  sequentibus. 

e.  g.          exempli  gratia.  s.  v.  sub  voce. 

etc.  or  &c.et  cetera.  vid.  vide, 

h.  e.          hoc  est.  viz.  videlicet. 

I.  C.         Jesus  Christus,  v.  versus,  versum,  etc. 

I.  H.  S.    Jesus  Hominum  Salvator.  v.  c.  verbi  causa. 

Ictus.       Juris  consultus,  V.  eel.  Vir  celeberrimus. 

ibid.         ibidem.  V.  cl.  Vir  clarissimus. 

id.  idem.  V.  F.  Vetus.Foedui. 

i.  e.          id  egt.  V.  T.  Vetus  Testamentum. 
25* 


294  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

10.  Academic. 

A.  B.  Artium  Baccalaureus,  Bachelor  of  Arts. 

A.  M.  Artium  Magister,  Master  of  Arts. 

D.  Doctor. 

LL.  B.  Legum  Baccalaureus,  Bachelor  of  Law. 

LL.  D.  Legum  Doctor,  Doctor  of  Laws. 

LIT.  D.,  or  L.  H.  D.,Litterarum  Humaniorum  Doctor,  Doctor  of  Literature. 

M.  D.  Medicinae  Doctor,  Doctor  of  Medicine. 

Mus.  D.  Musicae  Doctor,  Doctor  of  Music. 

Ph.  D.  Philosophiae  Doctor,  Doctor  of  Philosophy. 

S.  T.  D.  Sanctae  Theologiae  Doctor,  Doctor  of  Divinity. 

S.  T.  P.  Sanctae  Theologiae  Professor,  Professor  of  Divinity. 

S.  B.  Scientiae  Baccalaureus,  Bachelor  of  Science. 

S.  D.  Scientiae  Doctor,  Doctor  of  Science. 

***  Other  Academical  Degrees  are  represented  by  similar  initials. 


Abbreviations :  w.,  with  ;  compd.,  compound  or  compounded.    The  figures 
denote  the  sections. 


-a,  denoting  agent,  104,  4,  Rem. ;  fe- 
male names,  104,  31. 

-a  in  abl.,  270, 1, 1. 

a,  ab,  abs,  form  in  compounds,  101, 1. ; 
before  words  of  distance,  off,  129,  5 ; 
w.  abl.  of  agent,  173 ;  w.  verbs  of  ab- 
staining, excluding,  etc.,  177,  1;  w. 
verbs  of  driving  out,  177,  3;  w.  abl. 
of  remote  origin,  178,  3;  after  adjs., 
381, 1;  w.  abl.  of  place  whence,  182, 
2;  w.  abl.,  186. 

abbreviations,  317. 

abeo,  w.  abl.,  177,  4. 

abest  ut,  208. 

abhinc,  185,  6. 

ablative  in  i  in  3d  decl.,  29,  V. ;  abl. 
plur.  in  ubus,  34,  4 ;  abl.  in  e  in  ad- 
jectives of  3d  decl.,  43,  1;  abl.  sing, 
in  comparatives,  44,  5;  abl.  sing,  of 
adjs.  of  one  termination,  45,  1;  of 
participles,  45,  2. 

ablative,  definition  of,  165;  abl.  of 
cause,  166 ;  abl.  of  manner,  166 ;  166, 
1-3;  w.  cum,  166,  3;  abl.  of  accord- 
ance, 166,  4 ;  of  accompaniment,  166, 
5;  w.  junctus,  etc.,  166,  6 ;  w.  certain 
verbs,  167-170 ;  w.  ace.  after  vbs.,  169, 2 ; 
w.  opus  and  usus,  171 ;  of  material,  172 ; 
of  voluntary  agent,  173 ;  agent  as  mere 
instrument,  173,  4;  after  compara- 
tives, 174;  after  alius,  174,  3;  omitted 
after  comparative,  174,  5 ;  of  quality, 
175 ;  of  degree  of  difference,  176 ;  of  sep- 
aration, 177 ;  of  source,  178 ;  w.  ex  and 
de,  178, 2 ;  w.  ab,  178, 3 ;  of  price,  179 ;  w. 
dignusand  indignus,  179, 2 ;  of  penal- 
ty, 179,  4;  of  specification,  180;  after 


adjectives,  181;  w.  macte,  181,  2;  of 
place  whence,  182;  of  place  in  dates, 
182,  3 ;  of  native  place,  182, 4 ;  of  tribe, 
182,  5;  of  place  where,  183;  w.  prepo- 
sition omitted,  183,  2;  w.  totus,  183,  2; 
of  apparent  place,  183,  4;  of  route, 
184;  of  time,  185;  of  time  within 
which,  185,  5;  time  how  long,  185, 10; 
129,  3;  w.  propositions,  186;  ablative 
absolute,  187;  abl.  of  gerunds  and  ge- 
rundives, 252, 13 ;  of  supine,  254. 

absque,  w.  ablative,  186. 

-abus  for  -is,  19,  6. 

abutor,  167;  abutendus,  167,  2. 

ac,  atque,  after  words  of  likeness  and 
unlikeness,  257, 7. 

ac  si,  220. 

acatalectic,  284,  B.  ii.,  3. 

accentuation,  9, 10, 11. 

accidit,  208. 

accingor,  construction,  125. 

accipi,  w.  dat.  of  the  end,  161, 4. 

accommodatus,  162,  1  and  5. 

accompaniment,  166,  5. 

accusative  in  -im,  29,  iv. 

accusative,  14;  as  subject  of  an  infini- 
tive, 109, 3 ;  accusative  of  direct  object, 
121;  w  impersonal  verbs,  121, 1,  n.  1 ; 
attracted,  121, 1,  n.  3;  w.  intransitive 
verbs,  121,  2 ;  w.  verbal  nouns,  121,  3 ; 
w.  participial  in  -bundus,  121,  4 ;  w. 
omitted  verb,  121,  5 ;  w.  verbs  com- 
pounded w.  prepositions,  122;  w. 
preposition  repeated,  122,  n.  3;  two 
accusatives  w.  compounds,  122,  n.  2 ; 
cognate  ace.,  123;  defining  ace.,  124; 
ace.  of  neuter  adjs.  and  pronouns  w. 
295 


296 


INDEX. 


intransitive  verbs,  124,  n.  1 ;  of  inner 
object,  124,  n.  1 ;  a  neuter  ace.  of  a  pro- 
noun w.  ace.  of  the  person  after  in- 
transitives,  124.  n.  2 ;  ace.  w.  passives 
used  refl exively .  125 ;  two  ace.  w.  verbs 
of  naming,  making,  etc.,  126 ;  two  ace. 
w.  doceo  and  celo,  127 ;  one  ace.  re- 
tained w.  passive  verb,  while  the 
other  becomes  subject,  127,  4 ;  ace.  of 
specification,  128, 1 ;  of  part  affected, 
128, 1,  and  note ;  adverbial,  128,  2,  3 ; 
124,  n.  1;  ace.  antecedent  to  relative 
in  the  ace.,  128,  4;  of  extent  of  time 
or  space,  129;  terminal  ace.,  130;  of 
domus  and  rus,  130,  3 ;  after  preposi- 
tions, 131 ;  w.  postpositions,  131,  5 ;  in 
exclamations,  132;  w.  interjections, 
132 ;  after  intransitives  become  tran- 
sitive, 153,  4;  ace.  of  the  infinitive, 
237 ;  241 ;  of  gerunds  and  gerundives, 
252, 11, 12 ;  of  supine,  253. 

accusative  w.  infinitive,  109,  3;  111,  4  ; 
142,  3;  209,  2,  3;  228, 1;  228, 1,  2;  228, 
4;  228,6;  228,  7;  236-240;  242;  personal 
construction  of  passives  preferred  to, 
245. 

accusing  and  acquitting,  verbs  of,  140. 

-aceus,  104,  40. 

ad,  in  composition,  101, 1. ;  meaning  to 
one's  abode,  115, 2 ;  vbs.  compounded 
w.  governing  ace.,  122;  two  aces.,  122, 
n.  2 ;  w.  ace.,  131 ;  ad  Vestae,  133, 1,  n. 
1 ;  after  adjectives,  136,  3 ;  162,  5 ;  w. 
ace.  after  refert  and  interest,  142,  4; 
vbs.  compd.  w.  governing  dat.,  154; 
prep,  repeated,  154,  2 ;  meaning  at  or 
near,  183,  6,  a;  w.  gerunds  and  ge- 
rundives, 252,  11 ;  denoting  purpose, 
252, 12. 

-ades,  104,  34. 

adipiscor,  w.  gen.,  145,  3. 

adire  aliquem,  122,  n.  4. 

adjectives,  declension  of,  38-45;  irreg- 
ular, 46;  comparison  of,  47-51;  53; 
numeral,  54,  55;  derivation,  104,  35- 
52;  agreement  of,  113;  as  adverbs, 
113,  6 ;  for  nouns,  113,  7,  8 ;  for  geni- 
tives, 133,  n.  3;  governing  gen.,  136; 
governing  dat.,  162;  governing  abl., 
168;  181. 

admoneo,  139,  1. 

Adonic  verse,  289,  3;  301,  6. 

adspergo,  152. 

adsuefacere,  adsuetus,  169,  1. 

adulor.  160,  2. 

adverbs,  99;  comparison  of,  52 ;  nume- 
ral, 54,  3 ;  55, 5, 8, 9 ;  pronominal,  63, 3, 


4;  as  adj.,  113,  9;  adverbs  w.  gen.,  133, 
4,  n.  1,  b,  g;  133,  7,  1;  w.  ace.,  162,  6; 
w.  dat.,  163 ;  syntax  of,  255.  . 

adversum  or  adversus  w.  ace.,  131. 

advising,  verbs  of,  209. 

aeger,  w.  locative  genitive,  136,  6. 

aemulor,  160,  2. 

aequalis,  162,  1,  3. 

aequi  bonique  facio,  146,  2. 

aestimo,  146, 1,  c. 

-aeus,  104,  51. 

affatim  w.  gen.,  133,  4,  n.  1,  b. 

affinis,  162, 1  and  3. 

agent,  abl.  of  w.  a,  173;  without  prep., 
173,  4 ;  dat.  of,  157  ;  2-52,  16. 

agreement  of  predicate  and  subject, 
110;  111;  appositive,  112;  of  adjec- 
tives w.  their  nouns,  113;  of  pro- 
nouns w.  their  antecedents,  114;  at- 
traction, 114,  2,  6  ;  114,  3. 

-IT,  19,  2. 

-al,  104, 17. 

Alcaic  verse,  284,  E;  291,  2;  292,  4,  5; 
the  Alcaic  strophe,  301,  8,  and  n. 

Alcmanian  strophe,  284,  E;  301,  13. 

alienus,  instead  of  a  genitive,  133,  n.  3; 
w.  dat.,  162, 1 ;  w.  gen.,  162,  3;  w.  abl., 
162,  5. 

alii— alii,  119,  9,  d,  e. 

aliquis,  aliqui,  62, 13;  119,3,4. 

-alis,  104,  41. 

aliter  atque,  257,  7. 

alius,  decl.,  41;  use  of,  119,  9,  d,  e;  w. 
abl.,  174,  3;  alius— alium,  w.  plural 
verb,  110, 5. 

alius  atque,  257,  7. 

allegory,  305. 

alliteration,  305. 

alphabet,  1 ;  2. 

alter,  decl.r  41 ;  meaning  second,  119,  9, 
c  (ordinals) ;  use  of,  119, 9,  a-c;  alter— 
alter,  alteri— alteri,  119,  9,  6. 

altus,  w.  ace.  of  extent,  129, 1. 

amb-,  101,  ii.,  1. 

ambiguity  where  there  are  two  accu- 
satives w.  an  infinitive,  304  (amphi- 
bolia). 

ambo,  declension  of,  55,  2. 

amicus,  162,  1,  3. 

amphibolia,  304. 

amplius  without  quam,  174, 1. 

an,  258,  7-10, 12-15. 

anacoluthon,  304. 

Anacreontic  verse,  284,  E;  296,  6 ;  297. 

anacrusis,  284,  C,  1. 

anapaest,  283,  2 ;  cyclic,  290, 1,  n.  2. 

anapaestic  metres,  295. 


INDEX. 


297 


anaphora,  305. 

anastrophe,  304. 

animi,  148,  3. 

animum  (or  in  animum)  induxi,  in  an- 

imo  est  or  habeo,  w.  inf.,  241,  1. 
annon,  258, 10. 
answers,  258, 16, 17. 
ante,  w.  ace.,  131 ;  postpositive,  131,  5 ; 

in  compds.  w.  ace.,  122;  w.  dat.,  154; 

in  expressions  of  time,  185,  6. 
antecedent,  114,  1;  repeated,  114,  2,  a; 

incorporated  in  the  relative  clause, 

114,  2,  6;  omitted,  114,  2,  c;  relative 

attracted  to  its  case,  114,  3. 
anteo,  w.  ace.,  122;  w.  dat.,  154. 
antequam,  214,  2. 
antithesis,  305. 
antonomasia,  305. 
-anus,  104,  42,  45,  48. 
aorist.    See  perfect,  historical, 
aphaeresis,  304. 
apocope,  304. 

apodosis,  215 ;  304;  omitted,  220. 
aposiopesis,  305. 
apostrophe,  305. 
apposition,   112;    w.   nomen,    112,   1, 

Exc. 

appositive  clauses,  212. 
aptus,  162, 1  and  5. 
aptus  qui,  223,  2. 
apud,  w.  acc.,  131;   meaning  at  the 

house  of,  115,  2. 
-ar,  104, 17. 
arceo,  151. 
archaism,  304. 
Archilochian  verse,  284,  E;  289,  4;  291, 

1;  299;  301,9-12. 
-aris,  104,  41. 
Aristophanic   verse,   284,    E;    291,   3; 

301,7. 

-arium,  104, 19. 
-arius.104,18;  104,42. 
arrangement   of   words,   259-261 ;    of 

Clauses,  262,  263. 
arsis,  283, 1. 
article,  19,  n. 

-as  in  gen.  First  Declension,  19,  3;  suf- 
fix, 104,  49. 

as,  56,  3;  306;  308-311. 
Asclepiadean  verse,  284,  E;  293,  1,  2; 

301, 1-5. 

asking,  verbs  of,  127;  209;  242,  6. 
assimilation,  304 ;  95,3;  96;  101. 
assis,  genitive  of  value,  146, 1. 
assuetus,  169. 
asynartete,  284,  D. 
asyndeton,  304. 


atque,  after  words  of  likeness  or  un- 
likeness,  257, 7. 

attempted  action,  w.  pres.,  189,  5 ;  w. 
imperf.,  190,  3. 

attraction,  304;  of  predicate  noun  or 
adjective  after  licet  w.  dat.,  Ill,  6;  of 
names  of  persons,  112, 1,  Exc. ;  156, 1 ; 
inverted,  114,  2,  b;  of  relative,  114,  3; 
of  subject  of  governed  clause,  as  ob- 
ject, 121,  n.  3;  of  mood,  226 ;  228, 1,  2; 
of  vbs.  meaning  to  say  or  think,  232, 3. 

-atus,  104,  20,  44. 

audior,  245,  1. 

ausim,  84, 12,  a. 

aut,  110,  6 ;  257,  4. 

aut— aut  w.  sing.,  110,  7 ;  257, 6. 

authors,  Latin,  314-316. 

-ax,  104,  36,  3 ;  verbals  in,  136, 1. 

bacchiac  verse,  298. 

barbarism,  304. 

base,  284,  C,  2,  3. 

becoming,  verbs  of,  111. 

being,  verbs  of,  111 ;  156;  161. 

belli,  148,  2. 

bene  emere,  vendere,  179, 1. 

-ber,  104,  4,  Rem. 

-bills,  104,  36,  2;  verbals  in,  157,  3. 

binarius,  284,  B,  5. 

bini,  a  pair,  55,  4,  a. 

birth,  participles  denoting,  178. 

boni  consulo,  facio,  146,  2. 

bos,  declined,  31. 

brachycatalectic,  284,  B,  ii.  3. 

brachylogy,  304. 

-brum,104, 10. 

bucolic  diaeresis  or  caesura,  286, 5. 

-bulum,104,10,ll. 

-bundus,  104,  36,  4;  participial  in,  w. 

acc.,  121,  4. 
buying,  verbs  of,  147 ;  179. 

caesura,  286 ;  284,  A,  1. 

calendar,  Roman,  313, 9. 

called,  verbs  of  being,  111. 

calling,  verbs  of,  126. 

capitis,  capite,  140,  2 ;  179,  4. 

cardinals,  54 ;  declension,  55, 1-4. 

cases,  14;  cases  alike,  17,  1-3;  case 
endings,  18;  in  the  first  decl.,  19;  19, 
2-7 ;  second,  21 ;  23,  n. ;  23,  2-9 ;  25, 1 ; 
third,  29;  33;  fourth,  34;  fifth,  35;  of 
adjs.,  39-42 ;  43, 1 ;  44, 3, 5, 6 ;  45, 1-4  ;  46, 
1;  of  pronouns,  57,  3-6;  58,  1,  4;  61, 
1-3;  62,8,9,11,14. 

catachresis,  305. 

catalectic,  284,  B,  ii.  3. 


298 


INDEX. 


causa  and  gratia  w.  gen.,  133,  7. 

causal  clauses,  214,  3 ;  224  ;  232. 

cause,  gen.  of,  136,  4;  145,  1;  abl.  of, 
166 ;  denoted  by  a  participle,  250. 

cave  w.  subj.,  for  negative  imperative, 
247,6. 

caveo,  w.  ace.,  160,  1;  w.  dat.,  160,  1; 
with  or  without  ne  or  ut,  210, 1 ;  w. 
inf.,  210, 1. 

-ce,  60,  2. 

cedo,  w.  abl.,  177,  4. 

celer,  decl.,  42, 1. 

celo,  127 ;  127, 1. 

certo  w.  dat.,  153,  7. 

certum  est,  241,  1. 

certus,  136,  2,  3. 

ceu,  220. 

ch,  sound  of,  3,  i.,  ii. 

chiasm,  305. 

choosing,  verbs  of,  111 ;  126. 

choriambic  metres,  293. 

cingi,  w.  acc.,  125. 

-cinium,  104,  22. 

circa,  circiter,  w.  acc.,  131 ;  circa  post- 

•  positive,  131,  5. 

circum,  compds.  w.  acc.,  122,  n.  2;  w. 
acc.,  131 ;  postpositive,  131,  5. 

circumdo,  circumfundo,  152. 

cis,  citra,  w.  acc.,  131. 

citius  quarn,  214,  2, 1. 

clam,  w.  acc.,  186,  2;  w.  abl.,  186. 

clanculum,  w.  acc.,  186,  2. 

climax,  305. 

-clum,  104, 10. 

coeptus  sum,  86,  5. 

cognatus,  162, 1,  3. 

cogo,  242,  4. 

coins,  Roman,  306. 

collective  nouns  w.  plural  verb,  110,  4. 

com-,  con-,  in  compds.  w.  dat.,  154. 

comitor,  160, 2. 

communis,  w.  dat.,  162 ;  162, 1 ;  w.  gen., 
162,3;  136,7. 

commute,  179,  3. 

comparative  degree,  declension  of,  44 ; 
formation,  44,  3 ;  47 ;  abl.  in  -i  in,  44, 
5 ;  wanting,  49,  2 ;  50 ;  of  adverbs,  52 ; 
meaning  too  or  rather,  53, 1 ;  two  com- 
paratives, 53,  2;  w.  abl.,  174;  w.  gen. 
of  the  whole,  133,  4,  /;  standard  of 
comparison  omitted  after,  174,  5 ;  w. 
quarn,  quam  qui,  or  quam  ut,  and 
the  snbj.,  223,  5,  and  n. 

comparison  of  adjs.,  47-50;  irregular, 
49;  w.  magis  (or  minus),  maxime  (or 
minime),  50;  of  participles,  51;  of  ad- 
verbs, 52;  notes  on,  53. 


compendi,  135,  2. 

compleo,  141. 

complures,  decl.,  44,  4. 

compound  sentences,  107,  2. 

compound  tenses,  74,  n.  1-3 ;  83, 1, 2 ;  199. 

compound  words,  106. 

concede,  242,  4. 

concessive  subj.,  204;  214,  3;  225;  con- 
cessive particles,  204,  2;  concessive 
clause  as  condition,  217,  2,  3;  conces- 
sive participle,  250. 

condemning,  verbs  of,  140. 

conditional  sentences,  215-221 ;  logical, 
w.  indicative,  215,  2;  ideal,  215,  3; 
unreal,  215,  4;  mixed,  216;  denoted 
by  an  adj.,  an  abl.  abs.,  or  only  im- 
plied, 217;  by  a  concessive  clause, 
217,  2,  3 ;  by  a  question  or  an  impera- 
tive, 217,  4;  incomplete,  219;  220;  in 
oratio  obliqua,  228,  6,  7 ;  conditional 
participle,  217 ;  250. 

conduce,  147, 1,3;  179. 

confido,  168. 

conjugations,  73;  of  sum,  70;  first 
conj.,  74;  second,  75;  third,  76;  77; 
fourth,  78;  deponent  verbs  79;  (gen- 
eral view  of  the  four  conjugations, 
pages  102-105;)  periphrastic,  82;  ir- 
regular verbs,  85;  defective  verbs, 
86 ;  impersonal  verbs,  87. 

conjunctions,  100 ;  co-ordinative,  100, 2 ; 
subordinative,  100, 3 ;  syntax,  257 ;  con- 
junction omitted,  257,  2,  3. 

conor,  242,  5. 

conscius,  w.  gen.,  136,  2;  w.  dat.,  136,  3. 

consilium  cepi,  consilium  est,  etc.,  w. 
inf.,  241, 1. 

consimilis,  162,  4, 

consors,  136,  2. 

consto  (cost),  147,  1,  3;  179:  (consist 
of),  172. 

consulo,  160, 1. 

contendo  w.  dat.,  153,  7. 

contentus  w.  abl.,  168. 

contineo,  w.  abl.,  183,  2. 

contingit,  208,  n. 

contra,  w.  acc.,  131;  postpositive,  131,  5. 

contractions  in  forms  of  verbs,  84,  2,  4, 
7-10. 

contrarius,  162, 1,  3. 

convenio,  160. 

coordinate  clauses,  107,  3. 

copula,  108, 3, 1 ;  omitted,  108, 3, 3 ;  agree- 
ing in  number  w.  predicate,  111,  3. 

coram,  w.  abl.,  186. 

correlative  pronominal  adjectives,  63, 
1;  pronom.  adverbs,  63, 2-4. 


INDEX. 


299 


cotidie,  locative,  35,  4. 

crasis.276,5;  304. 

credor,  245. 

cretic  metres,  294. 

-crum,  104, 10. 

cuicuimodi,  62, 14,  8. 

cujus  modi,  134,  n.  2. 

-cula,  104,  25,  2. 

-culum,  104, 10;  104,  25,  2. 

-culus,  104,  25,  2. 

cum,  appended,  57,  7;  62,  10;  subjects 
united  by,  110,  2,  2;  w.  abl.,  186;  w. 
abl.  of  manner,  166,  1,  3;  of  accom- 
paniment, 166,  5. 

cum  (quum),  cpncessive  or  adversa- 
tive, 204,  2,  1;  214,  3;  in  comparison 
or  contrast,  214,  3,  2;  causal,  214,  3; 
temporal,  214,  4,  5;  2J4,  5,  2-5;  of 
coincident  action,  214, 4,  n.  2 ;  mark- 
ing lapse  of  time,  185,  9;  214,  4,  n.  3; 
of  subordination,  214,  5,  1 ;  marking 
a  period  within  which,  214, 5, 3 ;  mean- 
ing as  often  as,  214,  5, 5 ;  conditional, 
217,  5. 

cum  (quum)  primum,  193, 1. 

cum — turn ,  257,  6. 

-cumque  disjoined,  62,  14,  7;  compds. 
with,  how  declined,  62, 15. 

-cundus,  104,  36,  4. 

cupio,  241,  4. 

cura  est,  241, 1. 

cura  ut,  247,  6. 

euro,  242,  5. 

cyclic  dactyl  and  anapaest,  290, 1,  n.  2. 

dactyl,  283,  2;  cyclic,  290, 1,  n.  2. 

dactylic  hexameter,  285-287;  other 
dactylic  verses,  288,  289. 

damno,  140,  2;  damnari  w.  ad,  in,  or  a 
gen.,  140,  2,  n. 

dative,  14 ;  in  first  declension,  20, 2, 6, 7 ; 
in  the  second,  23,  6;  in  third  decl.,  29, 
iii.;  in  fourth  decl.,  34,  3,  4;  in  fifth 
decl.,  35,  2,  3 ;  dat.  in  i  in  adjs.,  41. 

dative,  defined,  149 ;  of  advantage,  149 ; 
151,  n.;  w.  transitive  verbs  and  the 
ace.,  150 ;  152 ;  w.  the  passive,  150, 1 ;  w. 
verbs  of  taking  away  and  protecting 
from,  151 ;  w.  intransitive  verbs,  153 
w.  impersonals,  153, 1,  6 ;  w.  passives 
used  impersonally,  153,  3;  poetic  dat 
of  place  whither,  153,  5;  in  poets 
and  later  prose  writers,  153,  6;  w 
verbs  of  contending,  153,  7 ;  w.  com- 
pound verbs,  154 ;  155 ;  of  possessor, 
w.  esse,  156;  w.  est  alicui  nomen,  156 
1 ;  w.  participle  agreeing  with  it,  after 


esse,  156,  2;  of  agent,  157;  w.  verbals 
in  -bilis,  157,  3;  limiting  the  whole 
predicate,  158;  translated  as  geni- 
tive, 158,  1 ;  specifying  a  relation, 
158,  2 ;  w.  quid  or  idem  and  facio  or 
fio,  158,  3;  of  participle,  denoting 
time  or  circumstances,  158,  4;  ethi- 
cal, 159;  dat.  or  ace.  w.  verbs,  160; 
two  datives,  w.  esse,  etc.,  161 ;  of  the 
end,  161,  4  ;  w.  adjs.,  162 ;  w.  propior, 
proximus,  propius,  proxime,  162,  6; 
w.  idem,  162, 7 ;  w.  adverbs,  163 ;  w.  in- 
terjections, 163;  w.  verbal  nouns,  164; 
w.  gerundives,  157,  1;  252,  16;  of 
gerunds  and  gerundives,  252,  9, 10. 

de,  w.  abl.,  186;  w.  abl.,  instead  of  a 
gen.,  133,  4,  n.  5 ;  after  participles  of 
origin,  178,  2;  of  time,  185,  4. 

dea,  dat.  and  abl.  plur.,  19,  6. 

debeo,  past  tenses  of  w.  present  inf., 
246,  3. 

decasyllabus,  284,  B,  6. 

deceo,  153,  2,  b. 

decerno,  242,  5. 

decerto,  153,  7. 

decet,  239,  3. 

declension,  12, 1 ;  first,  19, 20 ;  second,  21- 
25 ;  third,  26-28 :  fourth,  34 ;  fifth,  35 ; 
first  and  second  of  adjs.,  39-41 ;  third, 
42-45 ;  of  cardinals,  55 ;  of  pronouns, 
57-62. 

declensions,  general  view  of  all  the,  36. 

defective  nouns,  37;  adjs.,  46,  2,  3; 
verbs,  86. 

deficio,  153,  2,  6. 

definite  price,  179. 

delaying,  verbs  of  w.  quin,  211. 

delector,  168. 

deliberative  questions,  205. 

demanding,  verbs  of,  242,  4,  6. 

demonstratives,  59;  use  of,  116;  redun- 
dant, 116,  8;  used  in  a  suggestive 
sense,  116, 10. 

demonstror,  245, 1. 

denominatives,  105,  2. 

deponent  verbs,  64,  1;  79;  80;  84,  5; 
97,  V. 

depriving,  verbs  of,  177. 

desideratives,  88,  4. 

design.    See  purpose. 

desire,  241,  4 ;  verbs  of,  242. 

despero,  w.  ace.  or  dat..  160,  2. 

deus,  decl.,  23,  9. 

dexter,  40, 1. 

dextra,  183,  2. 

di-,  dis-,  101,  ii.,  2. 

diaeresis,  2;  304;  277;  284,  A,  2,  8. 


300 


INDEX. 


dialysis,  277. 

diastole,  280. 

die,  84, 4. 

dicionis,  in  pred.,  135, 2. 

dicolum,284,  5,1,1. 

dicor, 245. 

difference,  abl.  of  the  measure  of  the, 
176. 

dignor,  168. 

dignus,  w.  abl.,  179,  2;  w.  gen.,  179,  2; 
dignus  qui,  223,  2;  dignus  w.  inf., 
223,  2.  n. ;  dignus  w.  supine,  254. 

dimeter,  284,  JB,  2,  2. 

diminutive  nouns,  104, 25 ;  adjs.,  104,  29 ; 
verbs,  88,  5. 

diphthongs,  2,  1,  2. 

dipody,  284,  B,  ii.(  1. 

direct  discourse,  107, 1,  n. ;  228,  n. 

dis-,  compds.  of  w.  dat.,  177,  2. 

disadvantage,  dat.  of,  149 ;  151,  n. 

dispar,  162,  1,  3. 

dissimilis,  162,  4. 

distance,  ace.  or  abl.  of,  129,  4,  5. 

distare,  w.  dat.,  153,  6 ;  177,  2. 

distich,  284,  B,  i.,  2. 

distributives,  54,  2 ;  55,  4 ;  in  multipli- 
cation, 55,  5. 

di  versus,  162, 1,3;  181 ;  181, 1. 

do,  w.  two  datives,  161. 

doceo,  127 ;  127, 1,  3. 

doctus,  127,  3. 

doleo,  121,  2,  a;  168;  232,4. 

domus,  decl.,  34, 1. 

domi,  148,  2. 

domo,  182, 1 ;  183,  6,  a. 

domum,  domos,  130,  3. 

donee,  214, 1 ;  214, 1,  n.  1,  n.  2,  n.  3. 

dono,  152 ;  161. 

doubt,  verbs  of,  211. 

dramatists,  early,  quantity  in,  302. 

driving  out,  verbs  of,  177,  3. 

dual  number,  55  (duo  and  ambo). 

dubito,  211 ;  237. 

dubito  an,  231,  4 ;  258, 15. 

due,  84,  4. 

duco,  w.  two  datives,  161 ;  w.  gen.,  146 ; 
w.  ace.  and  inf.,  238,  n.  1. 

duim,  for  dem,  84, 1. 

dum,  w.  pres.,  214,  1,  n.  2;  w.  indie., 
214.  n.  1,  n.  2;  w.  SUbj.,  214,  1; 
217,  3. 

dum,  dummodo,  217,  3. 

e  in  dat.,  29,  iii. 

e  or  ex,  w.  abl.,  186;  for  gen.,  133,  4,  n. 

5 ;  in  compds.  w.  dat.,  151 ;  of  origin, 

178,2. 


ecce,  102, 1, 2;  w.  demonstratives,  51, 5; 

w.  nom.,  120,  3 ;  w.  ace.,  132. 
ecthlipsis,  274,  5 ;  304. 
edim  for  edam,  84, 1. 
efficio,  209,  n. ;  209, 1. 
egeo,  143. 

eheu,  102, 1, 1 ;  w.  ace.,  132. 
ei  (hei),  102, 1, 1 ;  w.  dat.,  163. 
-eis,  nom.  and  ace.  pi.,  29,  viii.,  xi. 
-eis,  104,  34. 
ejus  modi,  134,  n.  2. 
-ela,  104, 16. 
elegiac  distich,  288. 
elegiambic  verse,  299,  2. 
elision,  274. 
-ella,  104,  27. 
ellipsis,  304. 
-ellus,  104,  27f»,  30. 
em  o,179. 

emotion,  verbs  of,  168  (cause) ;  232,  4. 
emphasis,  in  arrangement  of  words, 

260. 
en,  102,  1,  2 ;  w.  demonstratives,  61,  5 ; 

w.  nom.,  120,  3 ;  w.  ace.,  132. 
enallage,  304 ;  305. 
enclitics,  11. 
end,  dat.  of,  161. 
endeavor,  verbs  of,  242,  5. 
ending,  verbs  of,  241, 1. 
enneasyllabus,  284,  B,  6. 
ennehemimeris,  284,  A  ;  ennehemime- 

ral  caesura,  284,  A,  1. 
-ensis,  104,  48. 
-enus,  104, 51. 
eo,  w.  gen.,  133,  4,  n.  1,  b. 
eo,  measure  of  difference,  176. 
epenthesis,  304. 
epexegesis,  305. 
-ere  for  -erunt,  84, 10. 
erga,  w.  ace.,  131, 1. 
ergo,  w.  gen.,  133,  7. 
es,  joined  to  preceding  word,  70,  6 ;  e 

in,  70,  5. 

escit  for  erit,  70,  4. 
essential  part,  subj.  of,  226. 
est,  dropping  its  initial,  70,  6 ;  est  ut,  it 

is  the  case  that,  208,  n. 
est  qui,  223,  4 :  227, 1. 
ethical  dative,  159. 
etiamsi,  etsi,  215, 1,  n.  2. 
-etum,  104,  24. 
euphemism,  305. 
euphony,   in   arrangement,  259.    See 

rhythm. 

-eus,  104,  37.  46,  47. 
evenit,  208,  n. 
excello,  168. 


INDEX. 


301 


exchanging,  verbs  of,  179,  3. 
exclamations,  ace.  w.  inf.  in,  240;  ut 

w.  subj.,  240,  2. 
existimor,  245. 
expers,  136,  2. 
expleo,  141. 
exsors,  136,  2. 
exsulto,  168. 

extent  of  space  or  time,  129. 
extra,  w.  ace.,  131,  1. 
extremum  est,  208,  n. 
extremus,  meaning,  113, 10. 
exuo,  152. 
exuor,  1257 

fac,  84,  4 ;  suppose,  209,  2 ;  fac,  fac  ut, 
fac  ne  w.  subj.,  for  imperat.,  247,  6. 

facio,  accent  of  compels.,  9,  Exc. ;  pas- 
sive of  compds.,  85,  2,  n.  4 ;  w.  gen., 
135,  2;  w.  dat.,  158,  3;  w.  abl.,  158,  3; 
W.  subj.,  209 ;  209,  2,  5 ;  w.  inf.,  238. 

fama  fert,  w.  inf.,  238,  n.  3,  a. 

fas,  \v.  abl.  supine,  254. 

faxo,  faxim,84, 12. 

fearing,  verbs  and  phrases  of,  213. 

feet,  in  verse,  283,  2,  5. 

feminine  caesura,  286,  7. 

fer,  84,  4. 

feror,  245. 

fertilis,  w.  gen.,  136,  2. 

ndo,  168. 

filia,  dat.  and  abl.  pi.,  19,  6. 

filling,  verbs  of,  141. 

final  sentences.    See  purpose. 

fine,  abl.  of,  140,  2. 

fio,  135,  1,  2 ;  158,  3. 

fit,  208. 

fitness,  adjs.  of,  162,  5. 

flagito,  242,  4. 

flocci,  146, 1,  a. 

floreo,  168. 

for  =  in  behalf  of,  149,  3. 

foras,  terminal  ace.,  37,  5. 

fore,  70,  3 ;  w.  perf.  part.,  246,  6. 

fore  ut,  246,  5. 

forem,  70,  2 ;  as  an  auxiliary,  74,  n.  2. 

forgetting,  verbs  of,  137. 

foris,  locative  abl.,  37,  5. 

formation  of  words,  103. 

forsitan,  202, 1. 

fractions,  56. 

frequentatives,  88,  2. 

fretus,  w.  abl.,  168. 

friendliness,  adjs.  of,  162,  2,  5. 

frugi,  46,  3,  d;  compared,  49, 1. 

fruor,  167  ;  fruendus,  80,  5,  Exc. ;  167,  2. 

fuam  for  sim,  70, 1. 


fui,  perf.  pass.  part,  w.,  74,  n.  1 ;  199. 

fulness,  adjs.  of  w.  gen.,  136,  2. 

fungor,  167 ;  fungendus,  80, 5,  Exc. ;  167, 2. 

future,  66,  2;  191;  periphrastic  fut. 
conjugation,  82,  1;  in  -ibo,  -ibor,  84, 
2;  in  -let  in  compds.  of  eo,  85,  7,  4; 
fut.  indie,  as  imperative,  191,  2 ;  247, 

3,  5;  of  subj.,  93;  inf.,  246;  246,  5-7; 
imper.,  247,  2,  4. 

future  participle,  249,  1 ;  w.  fuisse,  in 
dep.  apodosis  of  an  unreal  condi- 
tional sentence,  228,  6. 

future  perfect,  66,  5 ;  195 ;  of  immedi- 
ate sequence,  195,  3 ;  of  future  result, 
195,  4. 

futurum  esse,  fore,  ut,  228,  6 ;  246,  5. 

futurum  est  ut,  208. 

futurum  fuisse  ut  (w.  pass,  in  a  depen- 
dent apodosis  of  an  unreal  condi- 
tional sentence),  228,  6. 

fuvit  =  fait,  70, 1 

Galliambic,  297. 

gaudeo,  w.  abl.,  168 ;  w.  ace.  and  inf., 
or  quod,  232,  4. 

gemo,  w.  ace.,  121,  2,  a. 

gender,  13;  first  decl.,  19;  19,  8;  second, 
21 ;  23,  7 ;  24 ;  third,  30 ;  fourth,  34  ; 
34, 5 ;  fifth,  35 :  35, 5 ;  in  heterogeneous 
nouns,  37, 6 ;  in  redundant  nouns,  37, 8. 

genitive,  endings  of,  17, 18;  first  decl., 
19,  2,  3,  4 ;  second,  23, 4,  5 ;  25, 1 ;  third, 
26, 1, 2 ;  29,  ii. ;  33 ;  fourth,  34, 1)2 ;  fifth, 
35,  2,  3 ;  of  adjs.,  in  ius,  41. 

genitive,  14;  adnominal,  133;  of  posses- 
sion, 133, 1 ;  w.  the  limiting  noun  omit- 
ted, 133, 1,  n.  1 ;  represented  by  posses- 
sive adj.  pron.,  133,  1,  n.  2 ;  agreeing 
w.  gen.  implied  in  possessive  pron., 
133,  1,  n.  2,  6;  represented  by  adjs., 
133,  1,  n.  3 ;  subjective,  133,  2 ;  objec- 
tive, 133,  3;  translated  by  various 
prepositions,  133,  3,  n.  1;  subj.  and 
obj.  genitives  w.  same  noun,  133,  3, 
n.  2;  after  partitives,  133,  4;  after 
words  of  measure  or  quantity,  133,  4. 
n.  2 ;  gen.  of  the  whole  as  predicate, 
133,  4,  n.  3 ;  not  used  after  numerals 
not  partitive,  and  with  omnes,  133, 4, 
n.  4 ;  prepositions  used  instead  of,  133, 

4,  n.  5 ;  of  neut.  adj.  of  second  decl. 
after  neut.  adjs.  or  pronouns  or  nihil, 
133,  4,  n.  6 ;  neut.  pi.  of  adjs.  or  parti- 
ciples w.  a  defining  gen.,  133,  4,  n.  7; 
of  definition,  corresponding  to  an  ap- 
positive,  133,  5;  of  material,  133,  6; 
w.  causa,  gratia,  etc.,  133,  7 ;  after  ad- 


302 


INDEX. 


verbs  and  preps.,  133,  7;  of  quality 
or  ilAsp.riptionr  w.  an  adj.,  134;  of gen- 
eral  or  permanent  qualities,  134,  n.  1 ; 
as  predicate,  w.  sum,  135 ;  w.  fio,  135, 
1,  2 ;  vr.  facio,  135,  2  ;  after  adjs.,  136,  2 ; 
w.  verbals  in  -ax  and  participles  used 
as  adjs.,  136, 1 ;  other  constructions  w. 
adjs.,  136,  3 ;  of  cause  or  source,  136, 
4 ;  145, 1 ;  of  respect  in  which,  136,  5 ; 
animi,  as  seat  of  feeling,  136,  6 ;  after 
adj.  used  as  noun,  136,  7 ;  w.  verbs  of 
remembering  and  forgetting,  137 ;  w. 
venit  in  mentem,  137,  2,  n. ;  w.  verbs 
of  pitying,  138 ;  w.  verbs  of  remind- 
ing, 139, 1 ;  w.  impersonals,  139,  2 ;  w. 
judicial  verbs,  140;  w.  verbs  of  filling, 
141;  w.  refert  and  interest,  142;  w. 
egeo  and  indigeo,  143;  w.  satago,  144; 
poetic  uses  of,  145;  of  cause,  145,  1; 
of  separation,  145, 2 ;  w.  potior,  adipis- 
cor,  etc.,  145, 3 ;  of  value.  J4fi ;  w.  verbs 
of  buying  and  selling,  147 ;  locative  of 
names  of  towns  and  small  islands, 
148, 1 ;  of  domi,  belli,  etc.,  148,  2,  3 ;  of 
gerunds  and  gerundives,  252,  4-8. 

gerund,  65,  5 ;  68,  1 ;  in  -nndi,  84,  11 ; 
91,9. 

gerundive,  65,  4 ;  68,  1 ;  of  deponents, 
80,  5;  periphrastic  gerundive  conju- 
gation, 82,  2;  in  -undus,  84, 11 ;  91,  9. 

gerunds  and  gerundives,  252 ;  gerun- 
dive, instead  of  gerund  w.  ace.,  252, 
1,  2 ;  gen.,  w.  nouns  and  adjs.,  252,  4 ; 
gen.  governing  a  gen.,  252,  5 ;  gen.  in 
predicate  after  esse,  of  purpose  or 
end,  252,  6 ;  gen.  of  purpose,  252,  7 ;  w. 
gen.  sing.  neut.  of  possessive  adj. 
prons.,  252,  8;  dat.,  of  purpose,  etc., 
252,  9;  ace.  more  common,  252,  9,  1; 
adjs.  and  phrases  followed  by  dat., 
252,  9,  2 ;  predicative  use  of  dat.  after 
esse,  252,  9,  3;  purpose  of  an  office, 
252, 10 ;  acc.  w.  preps.,  152, 11 ;  ace.  of 
gerundive  w.  verbs  to  denote  pur- 
pose, 252, 11,  n.,  12 :  abl.,  252, 13 ;  neut. 
gerundive  used  impersonally,  252, 14 ; 
nom.  of  the  gerund,  252,  14,  n.  1;  w. 
obj.  in  acc.,  252, 14,  n.  2;  personal  ge- 
rundive construction,  252, 15 ;  w.  dat. 
of  agent,  252, 16;  meaning  of  gerund- 
ive used  attributively,  252, 17. 

glorior,  w.  abl.,  168. 

Glyconic  verse,  284,  E;  292,  7. 

gnomic  perfect,  192,  2,  c. 

Graecism,304. 

gratia,  w.  gen.,  133,  7. 

gratis,  19,  7. 


greater  Ionic  metres,  294. 

Greek  nouns,  first  decl.,  20;  second,  25; 

third,  32,  23. 
guilt,  adjs.  of,  w.  gen.,  136, 2. 

habeo,  w.  gen.  of  value,  146,  1,  6 ;  w. 
two  dats.,  161, 2 ;  w.  inf.,  241, 1 ;  w.  rel. 
and  subj.,  223,  4,  n. 

habilis,  162,  5. 

haerere,  153,  6. 

baud  scio  an,  231,  4 ;  258, 15. 

hei  (ei)  w.  dat.,  163. 

hemimeris,  284,  A. 

hendecasyllabus,  284,  £,  6 ;  292,  3,  4. 

hendiadys,  304. 

hephthemimeral  caesura,  284,  A,  1. 

hephthemimeris,  284,  A. 

heteroclites,  37,  7. 

heterogeneous  nouns,  37, 6. 

heu,  w.  acc.,  132;  rarely,  w.  nom.  or 
voc.  120.  2,  3. 

hexameter,  284,  £,  ii,  2;  dactylic,  285. 

hiatus,  275. 

hie,  59 ;  61, 1 ;  meaning  of,  116 ;  of  time 
within  which,  185,  5. 

hie,  adv.,  61. 

Hipponactean  verse,  284,  E;  2%,  3. 

historical  perfect,  66,  4 ;  193 ;  after  tem- 
poral conjunctions,  193, 1 ;  historical 
present,  189,  6. 

historical  tenses.  See  secondary  tenses. 

hodiernus,  w.  force  of  adv.,  113,  6. 

homoeoteleuton,  305. 

homonymia,  305. 

Horace,  lyric  metres  of,  301. 

horreo,  w.  acc.,  121,  2,  a. 

hortative  subj.,  203. 

hostility,  adjs.  of,  162 ;  162,  5. 

hours,  Roman,  313, 1. 

humi,  148,  2. 

hypallage,  304. 

hyperbaton,  304. 

hyperbole,  305. 

hypercatalectic,  284,  B,  ii,  3. 

hypermetrical  verses,  287. 

hyphen,  304. 

hypothetical.    See  conditional. 

hysteron  proteron,  305. 

i-  nouns,  26,  2 ;  -i  in  abl.,  29,  v. 
-ia,  104,  35,  1. 
-iades,  104,  34, 1,  d 
iambic  verses,  296. 
iambilegic  verse,  299, 1. 
-ianus,  104,  45. 
-ias,  104,  34,  2.  c. 
-ibam  for  -iebam,  84, 2. 


INDEX. 


303 


ibi,  61;  w.  its  correlatives,  63,  3. 

-ibo,  -ibor,  for  -iam,  -iar,  84,  2. 

-icius,  104,  40. 

ictus,  283, 1,  3. 

-icus,  104,  41,  45,  46. 

idem,  60 ;  meaning,  116, 7 ;  w.  dat.,  162, 7. 

-ides,  104,  34,  1,  a,  6. 

-ido,  104, 16. 

idoneus,  162,  2,  5 ;  w.  inf.,  223,  2,  n. ; 
idoneus  qui,  223,  2. 

-idus,  104,  36, 1. 

-iensis,  104,  48. 

-ier  in  the  infinitive,  84,  6. 

-ies,  104,  15. 

ignarus,  136,  2. 

-igo,  104,  6. 

-ile,  104,  24. 

-ilis,  104,  36,  2 ;  104,  41. 

-ilia,  104.  27. 

ille,  59;  61,  2,5;  116,  1-4,  8-10;  of  time 
within  which,  185, 5. 

illic,  60,  2;  adverb,  61. 

-ilium,  104,  27. 

-illus,  104,  27. 

-im  in  ace.,  29,  4. 

-im  in  pres.  subj.,  84, 1. 

imbuo,  169,  2. 

imitative  verbs,  88,  7. 

immemor,  136,  2. 

immo,  258, 18. 

imparisyllables,  26, 1. 

impedio,  210. 

imperative,  65,  2;  present,  247, 1,  4;  fu- 
ture, 247,  2 ;  w.  ne,  247,  4;  substitutes 
for  the  affirmative  imperat.,  247,  3; 
for  the  negative,  247, 5 ;  for  aff.  or  neg., 
247, 5,  n.  1 ;  w.  neve,  neu,  247, 5,  n.  2 ;  w. 
non,  neque,  nee,  247,  n.  2 ;  periphrases 
for,  247, 6 ;  softened,  247, 7 ;  perf.  pass., 
247,  8 ;  in  oratio  obliqua,  228,  2. 

imperfect,  66,  3;  indie.,  190;  in  letters, 
200  ;  w.  cum,  214,  5, 2,  3 ;  w.  antequam, 
etc.,  215,  2,  4  ;  subj.,  203,  2,  8 ;  214, 1 ;  2, 
3;  5;  215,  4 ;  215, 4, 1,  2;  228, 2,  6,  9 ;  234. 

imperitus,  136,  2. 

impero,  242,  7. 

impersonal  verbs,  87 ;  active,  87, 2;  per- 
sons expressed  w.,  87,  2;  personal 
verbs,  used  impersonally,  87,  3;  of 
weather  or  season,  87,  4 ;  passive,  87, 
5 ;  persons  w.,  87,  5 ;  neuter  gerundive 
used  impersonally,  87,  6;  person  w., 
87,6. 

impersonal  verbs  w.  ace.,  121,  n.  1 ;  w. 
clauses  of  result  as  subject,  208,  n. 

impersonal,  personal  construction  of 
passives  for,  245. 


impertio,  162. 

impleo,  141. 

impotens,  136,  2. 

imprudens,  136, 2 ;  w.  force  of  adv.,113,6. 

imus,  113, 10. 

in,  in  compds.,  101,  i. ;  w.  ace.  or  abl., 
131,  3;  w.  ace.  after  adjs.,  136,  3;  162, 
5 ;  verbs  compdd.  w.  governing  ace., 
122 ;  122,  4 ;  governing  dat.,  154 ;  prep, 
repeated  after,  154,  2,  4;  w.  abl.  of 
time  within  which,  185,  4;  w.  ge- 
rund., 252,  11, 18. 

in-,  inseparable  particle,  101,  i. 

-ina,  104,  21. 

-inas,  104,  45. 

incedo,  w.  pred.  nom.,  Ill,  1 ;  w.  ace., 
122;  w.  dat.,  154. 

inceptives,  88, 1. 

inchoatives,  88, 1. 

incorporated  clause,  subj.  in,  226,  n.  2. 

increments,  quantity  of,  271. 

indeclinable  adjs.,  46,  3,  d. 

indefinite  pronouns,  62,  5-7, 13, 14 ;  119. 

indicative,  65;  188;  in  condit.  sentences, 
181, 1 ;  215,  2 ;  in  the  apodosis,  215,  3, 
n.  3;  215, 4,  3 ;  as  an  auxiliary,  196 ;  in 
relative  clauses,  227. 

indigeo,  143. 

indignus,  179,  2;  w.  sup.,  254;  indignus 
qui.  223,  2;  w.  infin.,  223,  2,  n. 

indirect  discourse.  See  oratio  obliqua. 

indirect  or  remoter  object,  108, 6 ;  149, 1. 

indirect  questions,  231. 

inducor,  125. 

induo,  152. 

induor,  125. 

-ine,  104,  34. 

in  eo  esse  ut,  197,  2,  n.     • 

infimus,  113, 10. 

infinitive,  65,  3;  235-246;  w.  subj.  ace., 
109,  3;  209,  2,  3;  238-240;  w.  nom.,  109, 
3,  Exc. ;  243 ;  pred.  of,  111,  4 ;  pred.  of 
in  nom.,  after  verbs  of  saying,  think- 
ing, feeling,  241,  5;  w.  subjunc.  de- 
pendent on  it,  226;  in  oratio  obliqua, 
228, 1  and  1, 2 ;  4,  6-8 ;  tense  in  clauses 
after  ace.  w.  inf.,  234,  6;  inf.  as  subj., 
pred.,  or  appositive,  236;  as  obj.,  237; 
ace.  w.  inf.  as  object,  238 ;  as  subj.,  239, 
in  exclamations,  240 ;  inf.  after  vbs.  of 
power,  will,  duty,  etc.,  241 ;  inf.,  ace. 
w.  inf.,  or  ut  w.  subj.,  242;  historic, 
243;  to  express  purpose,  244,  1 ;  after 
nouns,  244,  2;  after  adjs.,  223,  2.  n.; 
244,  3 ;  after  preps.,  244, 4 ;  tenses.  246 ; 
periphrases  for  fut.,  see  fore,  futu- 
rum  esse. 


304 


INDEX. 


inflection,  12, 1. 

infra,  w.  ace.,  131. 

inner  object,  ace.  of  the,  124, 1. 

inquam,  86,  2 ;  how  used,  86,  2,  n. 

insciens,  w. 'force  of  adv.,  113,  6. 

inseparable  preps,  or  particles,  101,  i. 
(in-),  101,  ii. 

inspergo,  152. 

instar,  133,  7. 

instrument,  abl.  of,  166;  169. 

instrumental  case,  14,  2. 

instruo,  169,  2. 

insuetus,  136,  2;  162, 1,  3,  5 ;  244,  3. 

insuper,  131,  4. 

integer,  w.  gen.,  136,  5. 

intellegor,  245, 1. 

intensives,  88,  2. 

inter,  131;  postpositive,  181,  5;  vbs. 
coinpd.  w.  gov.  ace.,  122;  gov.  dat., 
154. 

interest,  w.  gen.,  142;  w.  abl.  of  poss. 
pron.,  142,  2;  followed  by  ace.  w.  inf., 
or  ut  or  interrog.  w.  subj.,  142,  3;  by 
ace.  w.  ad,  142,  4. 

interest,  dat.  of,  149;  157  ;  149-164. 

interest,  Roman  computation  of,  308. 

interjections,  102;  nouns  and  vbs.  used 
as,  102, 2;  advs.,102,3;  w.voc.,  120,2;  w. 
nom.,  120,  3;  w.  ace.,  132;  w.  dat,  163. 

interrogative  particles,  258;  omitted, 
258,5. 

interrogative  pronouns,  62,  2-4,  7-12, 14. 

intimus,  113, 10. 

intra,  w.  ace.,  131 ;  of  time,  185,  4. 

intransitive  verbs,  64, 4 ;  used  as  transi- 
tive, 121,  2 ;  as  impersonate  in  the  pas- 
sive, 87,  5;  153,3. 

inuro,  152. 

-inus,  102,  42,  45,  48. 

inverted  attraction,  114,  2,  6. 

invitus,  w.  force  of  adv.,  113, 6. 

-io,  104,  5,  32. 

Ionic  verse,  294,  3;  298,  2;  301, 19. 

ipse,60;  61,3,4;  118. 

ipsissimus,  61,  4. 

irony,  305. 

ire,  w.  supine,  85,  7,  2;  253,  3. 

irrational  time,  265,  7;  290, 1,  n.  1,  n.  2. 

irregular  nouns,  37;  adjs.,  46;  vbs.,  85. 

is,  59;  61,5;  116,6. 

-is,  104,  34,  2,  a. 

-is  in  ace.  pi.,  29,  xi. ;  in  nom.  pi.,  29,  viii. 

-is  for  iis,  19,  7 ;  23,  6. 

-isso,  verbs  in,  88,  3. 

iste,  59 ;  61,  5 ;  116,  6. 

istic.60,  2;  61. 

-itius,  104,  40. 


-itus,  104,  44. 
-ium,  104, 14,  23. 
-ius,  104, 42,  46,  51. 

jacio,  in  compds.,  3, 1. ;  266,  4,  n.  2. 
jubeo,  153,  2.  b;  209,  3;  242,  7. 
jubeor,  245,  1. 
jungo,  \v.  dat,  153,  6;  junctus  and  con- 

junctus,  w.  abl.,  166,  6. 
Jupiter,  decl.,  31. 
juratus,  81,  2. 
jusso,  for  jussero,  84, 12. 
juvo,  w.  ace.,  153,  2,  b. 
juxta,  w.  ace.,  131 ;  postpositive,  131,  5. 

knowing,  verbs  of  w.  ace.  and  inf.,  238 ; 

w.  inf.,  241. 
knowledge,  adjs.  of,  136,  2. 

laboro,  168. 

laedo,  153,  2,  6. 

laetor,  168. 

laetus,  168 ;  w.  force  of  adv.,  113,  6. 

laeva,  183,  2. 

latus,  w.  ace.  of  extent  of  space,  129, 1. 

-lens,  -lentus,  104,  43. 

letters,  tenses  in,  200. 

libens,  113,6. 

liber,  w.  abl.,  181 ;  w.  gen.  or  w.  ab,  181, 1. 

libero,  w.  abl.,  177;  w.  ab  and  abl.  of  a 
person,  177, 1. 

libro,  183,  2. 

liceo,  179. 

licet,  204, 2 ;  204, 2, 1 ;  239, 3 ;  its  tense  de- 
termining the  time  of  a  following  inf., 
246,  3. 

likeness,  adjs.  of,  162,  2,  4;  words  of, 
with  ac,  atque,  257,  7. 

-Iis,  104,  36,  2. 

litotes,  305. 

locare,  179. 

locative,  14,1;  19,5;  23,8;  29,  vi.;  34,1; 
35,4;  136,6;  148;  185,8. 

loco,  183,  2. 

locus,  plural,  37,  6. 

logaoedic  verse,  291. 

longius,  without  quam,  174, 1. 

longus,  w.  acc,  129, 1. 

lucri,  in  pred.,  135,  2. 

luctor,  w.  dat,  153,  7. 

macte,46,  3,  c;  181,2. 

magis  and  maxime,  in  comparison,  50 ; 

magis— quam,  53,  2. 
magni,  146, 1 ;  magno,  147,  3. 
making,  vbs.  of  w.  two  acc.,  126 ;  passive 

w.  two  nom.,  111. 


INDEX. 


305 


male  or  (bene),  emere,  vendere,  179, 1. 
malo,  85,  5;  209,  5;  241,  4;  242. 
manifestus,  136,  2. 
manner,  abl.  of,  166,  1,  2;  denoted  by 

participle,  250. 
masculine  caesura,  286;  7. 
mastery,  adjs.  of,  136,  2. 
material,  gen.  of,  133,  6 :  abl.  of,  172. 
matutinus,  w.  force  of  adverb,  113,  6. 
means,  abl.  of,  166;  denoted  by  parti- 
ciple, 250. 

measure,  of  difference,  abl.  of,  176. 
measures,  Koman,  of  length,  310;  of 

surface,  811;  of  capacity,  312. 
medeor,  w.  dat.  153.  2 ;  medendus,  80, 5, 

Exc. 

medio,  183,  2. 
medius,  113, 10. 
melius,  w.  indie.,  196. 
memini,  86, 6 ,  w.  gen.,  137 ;  w.  pres.  inf., 

246,  4. 

memor,  136,  2. 
memoria  teneo,  246,  4. 
-men,  104,  7,  8,  9. 
-mentum,  104,  7. 
-met,  57,  8;  58,5. 
metaphor,  305. 
metaplasts,  37,  6. 
metathesis,  305. 
metonymy,  305. 
metre,  284,  B. 
metrical  reading,  303. 
metuo,  w.  dat.  or  ace.,  160 ;  w.  ut  or  ne, 

213. 

mi,  voc.  of  meus,  58, 1 ;  for  mini,  57,  4. 
middle  voice,  64,2;  125. 
militiae,  148,  2. 

minimi,  146,  1 ;  minimo,  147,  3;  179,  1. 
-mino,  minor,  in  imperat.,  84,  5. 
minor,  minus,  without  quam,  174,  1. 
minoris,  146, 1 ;  147. 
miror,  w.  ace.,  121,  2 ;  w.  gen.  of  cause, 

145, 1 ;  w.  ace.  w.  inf.  or  quod,  232,  4. 
mirum  quam  or  quantum,  231,  4. 
misceo,  152;  153,  6. 
misereor,  miseresco,  w.  gen.,  138. 
miseret,  139,  2. 
mitto,  w.  two  dats.,  161,  .. 
moderor,  w.  dat.  or  ace.,  160. 
modo,  w.  subj.,  217,  3;    modo— modo, 

now— now,  257,  6;  non  modo— sed  ne 

— quidem  (or  vix),  256,  3. 
moneo,  124,  n.  2,  209,  n. 
money,  Roman,  306-308. 
-monia,  104,  35,  2;  -monia,  -monium, 

104, 14. 
monocolum,  284,  B,  i.  1. 

26* 


monometer,  284,  B,  ii.  2. 
monosyllables,  quantity  of,  269. 
mood  signs,  origin  and  history,  90. 
morae,  or  times,  265,  2. 
moris  est,  135. 

multiplication,  how  expressed,  55,  5. 
multiplicatives,  55, 14. 
multitude,  noun  of,  110,  4. 
muto,  179,  3. 

naming,  verbs  of  w.  two  noms.,  Ill; 
w.  two  aces.,  126. 

natus,  tr.  old,  w.  ace.,  129;  w.  abl.,  178. 

-ne,  11,  2;  258, 1-4,  6-10,  12. 

ne,  w.  opt.  subj.,  203, 1,  n.  2;  w.  conces- 
sive subj.,  204, 2,  w.  sentences  of  pur- 
pose, 206;  w.  substantive  clauses,  209 ; 
after  vbs.  of  hindering,  210 ;  omitted, 
210,  n ;  after  verbs  of  fearing,  213 ;  w. 
imperat.,  247,  4,  5. 

nearness,  adjs.  of,  162,  2,  6. 

necessarius,  162,  2,  3. 

necesse  est,  239,  3. 

necne,258, 10. 

nee  non,  256, 1. 

nedum,  206,  5. 

nefas,  w.  abl.  supine,  254. 

negatives,  two,  256. 

nequam,  46,  3,  d  ;  compared,  49. 

neque  non,  256, 1. 

nescio  an,  231,  4 ;  258, 15. 

nescio  quis,  quo,  etc.,  119,  2;  w.  indie., 
231,  4. 

-neus,  104,  38. 

neuter,  decl.  of,  41. 

neuter  adj.,  113,  3,  n.  1;  referring  to  a 
phrase  or  clause,  113,  4 ;  as  noun,  113, 
8;  as  denning  ace.,  124;  w.  gen.  of 
the  whole,  133,  4,  n.  6,  n.  7. 

neuter  passives,  81, 1. 

neutral  passives,  81. 

ni=si  non,  or  nisi,  q.  v. 

nihili,  146, 1 ;  nihilo,  nonnihilo,  147,  3. 

nimium  quantum,  231,  4. 

nisi  and  si  non,  215, 1 ;  215, 1,  n.  1. 

nitor,  w.  abl.,  168. 

nix,  decl.,  31. 

"no,"  258,  17. 

noli,  nolite,  w.  inf.,  for  imperat.,  247, 6. 

nolo,  85,  4;  209,5;  241,4. 

nomen  est,  w.  dat.,  156, 1,  a;  w.  nom. 
or  gen.,  156, 1,  6. 

nominative,  14;  110;  120;  w.  interjec- 
tions, 120,  3;  as  voc.,  120,  4;  poetic 
nom.  after  inf.,  241,  5 ;  for  ace.,  241, 
6 ;  w.  infin.,  109,  3,  Exc. ;  243. 

nomine,  w.  gen.  of  crime,  140, 1. 


306 


INDEX. 


non  w.  imperat.,  247,  5,  n.  2 ;  non  quod 

w.  subj.,  232,  1. 
non  modo — sed  ne— quidem  (or  vix), 

256,3. 

nonne,  258, 1. 

nos  for  ego,  noster  for  meus,  115, 1. 
nostri,  nostrum,  133, 1,  n.  2,  c. 
notus,  w.  dat.,  162;  w.  gen.  of  cause, 

136,4. 

noxius,  w.  gen.,  136,  2 ;  w.  dat.,  252,  9, 2. 
nubo,  w.  dat.,  153,  2,  a. 
nullus,  41. 
num,  258, 1. 

number,  14;  agreement  in,  110;  113: 114. 
numerals,  54-56 ;  numeral  adverbs,  54. 
nunc— nunc,  257,  6. 
nuntior,  245. 
-nus,  104,  38,  39. 
nusquam,  w.  gen.,  133,  4,  n.  1,  6. 

-o,  104,  4,  Rem. ;  104,16. 

o,  w.  the  nom.,  120,  3;  w.  voc.,  120,  2; 
w.  ace.,  132. 

o  si,  203,  3. 

ob,  w.  acc.,  131 ;  compds.  of  w.  ace.,  122 ; 
AV.  dat.,  154. 

obeying,  dat.  w.  vbs.  of,  153, 1. 

object,  direct,  108,  6 ;  acc.  of,  121 ;  be- 
comes subj.  w.  passive  voice,  121,  1, 
Rem. ;  inner  object,  124,  n.  1 ;  remoter 
(or  indirect)  object,  108,  6;  149,  n.  1 ; 
object  clauses,  209;  238;  242;  inf.  as 
object,  237. 

objective  genitive,  133,  3;  136. 

obliviscor.w.gen.,  137;  w.acc.,  137,  exc. 

octonarius,  284,  B,  ii,  5. 

offendo,  w.  acc.,  153,  2,  6. 

-ola,  104,  30. 

oleo,  redoleo,  w.  acc.,  121,  2,  6. 

olli,  ollis,  ollas,  olla,  for  illi,  etc.,  61,  2. 

-olum,  104,  26. 

-olus,  104,  26. 

omitting,  quin  after  verbs  of,  211. 

omnes  not  followed  by  gen.,  133,  4.  n.  4. 

omnium,  w.  possessives,  112,  3;  w.  no- 
strum and  vestrum,  133, 1,  n.  2,  c. 

-on,  -eon,  gen.  plur.  in,  25, 1 ;  33,  2. 

-one,  104,  34.  2,  e. 

onero,  169,  2. 

onomatopoeia,  305. 

operam  do  w.  subj.,  209. 

opinione,  after  comparat.,  174,  4. 

oportet,  239,  3;  242,1. 

opto,  242,  4. 

opus,  171;  w.  abl.  sup.,  254;  opus  est 
w.  inf.  or  acc.  w.  inf.,  239,  3;  w.  subj., 
242,1. 


-or,  104, 1. 

oratio  obliqua,  107, 1,  n. ;  228,  n. ;  moods 
in,  228,  1-7  ;  tenses  in,  228,  2,  6-9 ;  con- 
ditional sentences  in,  228,  6,7;  pro- 
nouns in,  229 ;  virtual,  230. 

oratio  recta,  107, 1,  n ;  228,  n. ;  228, 1. 

order  of  words,  259-263. 

ordinal  numbers,  54. 

ordine,  abl.  of  manner,  166. 

origin,  abl.  of,  178. 

oro,  242,  6. 

ortus,  178;  ortus  ab,  178,  3. 

-os,  -om,  in  second  decl.,  23, 2. 

-osus,  104,  43. 

oxymoron,  305. 

paenitet,  139,  2 ;  w.  inf.,  236, 1 ;  w.  quod, 
233 ;  w.  interrog.  pron.,  231. 

palam,  w.  abl.,  186. 

par,  dispar,  162, 1,  3. 

parabole,  305. 

paragoge,  304. 

pardoning,  verbs  of  w.  dat.,  153, 1. 

parenthesis,  304. 

parisyllables,  26,  2. 

paroemiac  (of  proverbs)  verse,  295,  2. 

paronomasia,  305. 

pars,  w.  plural  verb,  110,  4,  a. 

part  affected,  acc.  of,  128,  n. 

particeps,  w.  gen.,  136,  2. 

participation,  adjs.  of,  136,  2. 

participles,  65,  4 ;  of  deponents,  79 ;  80, 
4,  5;  of  semi-deponents,  81,  2,  3; 
government,  248;  time  of,  249;  fut. 
of  purpose,  249, 1 ;  want  of  pres.  pass, 
supplied,  249,  2;  of  perf.  act.,  249, 
3;  of  fut.  pass.,  249,  4;  circumstantial 
participle  (of  time,  cause,  etc.),  250 ; 
w.  nisi,  quamquam,  etc.,  250,  2;  in- 
stead of  rel.  clause,  251, 1 ;  Eng.  with- 
out how  translated,  251,  2;  perf.  pass., 
w.  habeo,  teneo,  possideo,  251,  3; 
equiv.  to  verbal  noun,  251,  4,  5 ;  part, 
and  vb.  tr.  by  two  vbs.,  251,  6;  in- 
volved w.  indirect  question  or  rela- 
tive, 251,  7;  man,  men,  things  under- 
stood w.,  251,  8;  as  adjs.,  251,  9;  as 
nouns,  251, 10 ;  gerundive,  252. 

particles,  98. 

partim,  w.  plur.  verb,  110, 5,  a ;  w.  gen., 
133,  4,  n.  1,  6. 

partitive  apposition,  110,  5. 

partitives,  133,  4,  n.  1. 

parts  of  speech,  12. 

parum,  w.  gen.,  133,  4,  n.  1,  6. 

parvi,  146  ;  parvo,  147,  3. 

passive  voice,  64 ;  intransitive^  in,  im- 


INDEX. 


307 


personally,  64, 5 ;  87, 5 ;  personally,  121 ,  -I 
2,  d;  obj.  of  active  the  subj.  of  pass., 
121,  Rem. ;  as  middle,  64,  2 ;  125 ;  com- 
pound tenses,  199';  personal  construc- 
tion preferred,  245. 

patior,  242, 4. 

patrials,  58,  4 ;  104,  48-50. 

patronymics,  104,  34. 

pauci,  46,  2. 

pause,  in  verse,  284,  B,  2,  4.  See  also 
caesura. 

pavidus  sum,  213, 1. 

peculiaris,  162, 1,  3. 

penalty,  140,  2. 

penes,  w.  ace.,  131 ;  postpositive,  131,  5. 

pentameter,  284,  B,  ii.  2. 

penthemimeral  caesura,  284,  A,  1 ;  pen- 
themimeris,  284,  A. 

per,  in  compds.,  53, 5 ;  101,  i. ;  w.  ace.,  131 ; 
postpositive,  131,  5 ;  compds.  w.  ace., 
122 ;  of  duration  of  time  or  extent  in 
space,  w.  ace.,  129. 

perceiving,  verbs  of,  w.  ace.  and  inf., 
238. 

perfect  stem,  68,  2 ;  92 ;  95. 

perfect  tense,  66,  4,  7;  192;  historical, 
or  aorist,  193;  after  temporal  con- 
junctions, 193,  1;  in  letters,  200;  in 
potential  subj.,  202;  w.  utinam,  203, 
2 ;  subj.  second  pers.  in  prohibitions, 
203,  7 ;  w.  licet,  204,  2, 1 ;  perf.  ind.  w. 
cum,  214,  4,  n.  1 ;  subj.  in  prot.  and 
apod.,  215,  3;  periphrastic  perf.  subj. 
for  pluperf.,  215,  4 ;  perf.  subj.  for  im- 
perat.  in  oratio  obliqua,  228, 2, 1 ;  perf. 
inf.  representing  plup.  subj.,  228,  7; 
perf.  inf.,  228, 8 ;  in  sequence  of  tenses, 
234;  234,  4;  in  sentences  of  result,  234, 
5;  perf.  subj.  for  fut.  perf.,  234,  7; 
periph.  subj.,  234,  8;  perf.  inf.,  246, 
1,  2,  4 ;  Eng.  perf.  inf.  represented  by 
Latin  pres..  246,  3 ;  imperat.  pass.,  247, 
8 ;  want  of  perf.  act.  part,  how  sup- 
plied, 249,  3 ;  origin  of  modern  perf., 
251,  3 ;  perf.  part.,  251,  4. 

perhibeor,  245. 

periculum  est,  w.  subj.,  213, 1. 

period,  263. 

periphrasis,  305. 

periphrastic  conjugations,  82;  197, 198; 
subj.,  215,  4,  4,  5 ;  to  mark  future  time 
in  seq.  of  tenses,  234,  7 ;  perf.  subj.  for 
subordinated  plup.  subj.  in  apodosis, 
234,  8 ;  inf.  in  orat.  obliq.,  228,  6. 

peritus,  w.  gen.,  136,  2 ;  of  ger.,  252,  4. 

permagno,  147,  3. 

permisceo,  153,  6. 


permitto,  242,  4. 

permuto,  179,  3. 

person  interested,  149 ;  150-164. 

personal  construction  in  pass,  for  im- 
personal, 245. 

personal  endings  of  verbs,  origin  of,  89. 

personal  pronouns,  57;  omitted,  109,  2; 
order,  110,  3 ;  first  pi.  for  sing.,  115, 1 ; 
w.  ad,  apud,  ab,  ex,  115,  2;  w.  apposi- 
tive,  though  expressed  only  in  verb 
termination,  115, 3;  gen.  pi.  originally 
neut.  sing.,  252,  8. 

personification.    See  prosopopoeia. 

persons,  preference  of  in  concord,  110, 3. 

persuadeo,  153,  2 ;  209,  n. ;  209,  2. 

pertaesum  est,  139,  2. 

pervolo,  85,  6. 

petitio  obliqua,  230,  n. 

peto,  127,  2. 

Phalaecian  verse,  284,  E;  292,  3. 

Pherecratian  verse,  284,  E;  292,6. 

piget,  139,  2. 

pili,  146, 1. 

place,  whither,  130 ;  153,  5 ;  where,  148 ; 
183;  whence,  182;  as  means,  cause, 
etc.,  183,  4. 

pleasing,  verbs  of,  153. 

plenus,  136,  2 ;  181. 

pleonasm,  304. 

plerique  in  the  sing.,  46,  2. 

pluperfect,  66,  6,  7 ;  194 ;  aor.  or  pres. 
for  English  plpf.,  193, 1 ;  perf.  for  Eng. 
plpf.  potential,  196 ;  periphrastic  for, 
197,  2 ;  for  Eng.  perf.  in  letters,  200 ; 
in  wishes  which  cannot  be  fulfilled, 
203,  2;  in  imperat.  subj.,  203.  8;  subj. 
w.  antequam,  etc.,  214,  3;  subj.  w. 
cum,  214,  5 ;  214,  5,  5 ;  indie,  w.  cum, 

214,  5,  4,  5 ;  in  conditional  sentences, 

215,  4 ;  perf.  ind.  for,  215,  4,  3 ;  peri- 
phr.  perf.  subj.  for,  215,  4,  4;  periphr. 
plpf.  subj.,  215,  4,  5;  how  expressed 
when  in  a  dependent  apodosis,  228, 
6;  represented  by  perf.  inf.,  228,  7;  in 
commands  or  questions  in  orat.  ob- 
liq., 228,  9;  in  sequence  of  tenses,  234 ; 
representing  fut.  perf.,  234,  7 ;  repre- 
sented by  periphr.  perf.  subj.,  234.  8. 

plural,  of  proper  names,  37,  n.  1 ;  of  dif- 
ferent instances,  or  poetical,  37,  n.  2, 
n.  3 ;  w.  collectives,  110,  4 ;  for  sing, 
of  pron.,  115, 1. 

plurimi,  146, 1;  147 ;  plurimo,  147,  3. 

pluris,  146, 1 ;  147. 

plus,  decl.,  44,  2 ;  meaning,  52,  2 ;  with- 
out quam,  174, 1. 

pone,  w.  ace.,  131, 1. 


308 


IXDEX. 


port,  por,  old  prep.,  101,  ii. 

posco,  w.  two  ace.,  127 :  w.  a  and  abl. 
of  the  person,  127,  2  ;  w.  ut  or  ace.  w. 
inf.,  242,  4;  w.  inf.,  241. 

position,  quantity  by,  266. 

possessive  adj.  pronouns,  58;  115;  w. 
gen.  in  apposition  to  person  implied, 
112,  3 ;  133,  1,  n.  2,  6  ;  omitted,  115,  4 ; 
meaning  fitness,  115,  5 :  of  possessor, 
133,  1,  n.  2 ;  objectively,  133,  3,  n.  3. 

possessor,  dat.  of,  156. 

possum,  72. 

post,  w.  ace.,  131 ;  compds.  of  w.  dat., 
154  ;  denoting  interval  of  time,  185,  6. 

postpositive  prepositions,  131,  5. 

postquam  and  posteaquam,  w.  hist, 
perf.,  193, 1. 

postremus,  113, 10. 

postridie,  35,  4 ;  133,  7,  1. 

postulo,  127,  2 ;  242,  4. 

potential  subj.,  202. 

potior,  145,  3 ;  167  ;  167,  2 ;  potiundus, 
80,  5,  Exc. ;  167,  2. 

prae,  w.  abl.,  186;  in  compds.,  53,  5; 
compds.  of  w.  dat.,  154. 

praecipio,  209,  n. ;  209,  3,  4;  237. 

praeditus,  168. x 

praesto,  168. 

praestolor,  160,  2. 

praeter.w.  ace.,  131;  compds.  of  w.  ace., 
122. 

praeteritives,  86,  6. 

predicate,  108, 1,  3,  5 ;  pred.  nom.,  noun, 
and  adj.,  Ill;  111,  2;  verb  agreeing 
in  number  w.  pred.,  Ill,  3;  of  inf. 
w.  subj.  ace.  Ill,  4  ;  of  abl.  abs.,  Ill, 
5;  in  dat.  after  esse,  111,  6;  pred.  ace., 
126 ;  gen.,  135 ;  abl.,  167,  3;  dat.  limit- 
ing, 158 ;  pred.  of  an  inf.  agreeing  w. 
unexpressed  subj.  ace.,  239,  2;  nom. 
after  volo  esse,  etc.,  241,  4, 

prepositions,  101 ;  in  composition,  101, 
i. ;  inseparable,  101,  ii.  (For  syntax, 
see  the  prepositions  severally:  a,  ad, 
etc.) 

present,  66, 1 ;  68, 1 ;  pres.  stem,  94 ;  ind., 
189;  for  fut.,  189,  4 ;  214, 2,  6;  conative, 
189,  5 ,  historic,  189,  6 ;  w.  dum,  189,  6, 
2;  214, 1,  n.  2 ;  w.  jam,  etc.,  189,  7 ;  w. 
temporal  conjunctions,  193, 1 ;  in  let- 
ters, 200;  w.  cum,  214,  4;  pres.  subj.. 
202,  2,  n. ;  optative,  203,  2,  3 ;  w.  licet, 
204, 2, 1 ;  w.  dum,  donee, quoad, 214, 1 ; 
in  conditions,  215,  3 ;  of  future  con- 
tingency, 215,  3,  n.  1 ;  condition  con- 
trary to  fact,  215,  3,  n.  2 ;  in  orat.  ob- 
liq.,228,  9;  for  imperat.,  228,  2,  I;  in 


sequence  of  tenses,  234 ;  of  inf.,  228,  S : 
after  verbs  of  power,  duty,  permis- 
sion, 246,  3;  after  memini,  246,  4;  im- 
perat., 247,  1 :  247, 1,  4 ;  subj.  for,  247,  5, 
n.  1;  participle,  249;  substitute  for 
part,  pass.,  249,  2. 

preventing,  verbs  of,  210;  210, 1,  2;  211. 

Priapeian  verse,  292, 8. 

price,  gen.  of,  147;  abl.,  179. 

pridie,35,  4;  133,7.1. 

primus,  primum,  primo,  113,  6,  n.  2 ; 
'•  he  was  the  first  to,"  113,  6,  n.  1. 

primus  qui,  223,  2. 

principal  parts  of  verbs,  69 ;  table  of.  97. 

prior,  primus,  w.  force  of  adv.,  113,  6; 
w.  gen.,  133,  4,  d;  primus,  first  part, 
113, 10. 

priusquam,  214,  2. 

pro,  prod,  in  compds.,  101,  i. 

pro,  w.  abl.,  186;  meaning  in  defence 
of,  149,  3. 

pro,  interj.,  w.  voc.,  120,  2;  w.  ace.,  132. 

procul,  procul  ab,  w.  abl.,  186,  3. 

prohibeo,  209 ;  210 ;  211, 1 ;  237. 

prohibitions,  subj.  in,  203,  5;  203,  7;  247, 
5  and  n.  1;  imper.,  247,  4;  substitutes 
for  imperat.  in,  247,  5,  6. 

prolepsis,  304. 

promising,  verbs  of,  238. 

pronouns,  57-62 ;  agreement,  114 ;  mean- 
ing of  demonstratives,  etc.,  116  sqq. ; 
in  oratio  obliqua,  229. 

pronunciation,  old  Roman,  3,  i. ;  Ener- 
lish  method,  3,  ii.;  "continental,"  3. 
iii. 

prope,  AV.  ace.,  131 ;  prope  est,  proxime 
est,  ut,  208,  n. 

proper  adjectives,  104,  48-51. 

propior,  proximus,  w.  force  of  adv., 
113,6;  w.  cases,  162,6. 

propius,  proxime,  131,  2;  162,  6. 

proportionals,  55, 15. 

proprius,  162, 2  and  3. 

propter,  w.  ace.,  131 ;  postpositive.  131, 5. 

prosody,  265-303. 

prosopopoeia,  305. 

prospicio,  160. 

protasis,  304;  215;  omitted,  219. 

provideo,  160. 

providus,  w.  gen.,  136,  2. 

prudens,  w.  gen.,  136,  2;  w.  force  of 
adv.,  113,  6. 

pudet,121,n.  1;  139,2. 

pugno,  w.  dat.,  153,  7. 

punishment,  140,  2. 

purpose,  201,  1 ;  clauses  of,  w.  ut,  quo, 
ne,  and  the  subj.,  206;  w.  relative 


INDEX. 


309 


advs.,  and  the  subj.,  206,  2;  222,  n.  2; 
purpose,  not  of  the  action  but  of  the 
statement,  206,  4;  w.  qui  and  subj., 
206, 1 ;  222;  w.  inf.,  244, 1 ;  w.  fut.part., 
249, 1 ;  part.,  250';  gerund  and  gerund- 
ive, 252,  6, 7,  9,  and  9, 1 ;  252, 12 ;  (of  an 
office),  252, 10 ;  w.  ace.  supine,  253  and 
note. 

puto,  to  reckon,  w.  gen.,  146, 1,  6. 

putor,  245. 

Pythiambic  strophe,  301, 16, 17. 

qu  changed  to  c,  23,  2. 

qua,  w.  its  correlatives,  63,  3. 

quaero,  127,  2. 

qualis,  w.  its  correlatives,  63, 1 ;  for  et 
talis,  259, 15. 

qualities,  two  compared,  53, 2. 

quality,  gen.  of,  134;  abl.  of,  175;  per- 
manent and  transient  qualities,  134, 
n.  1. 

quam,  w.  comparative,  174;  omission 
of,  174,  1;  w.  superlat.,  53,  4;  quam, 
quam  ut,  quam  qui,  after  a  compar., 
w.  subj.,  223,  5  and  n. ;  quam  si,  220. 

quamlibet,  204,  2,  1. 

quamquam,  204,  2,  1. 

quamvis,  204,  2;  204,  2, 1. 

quando,  232. 

quanti,  146, 1 ;  147. 

quantity,  6-8 ;  in  verse,  265  ;  rules,  266- 
273;  natural  quantity,  273;  by  au- 
thority, 273. 

quantumvis,  204,  2, 1. 

quantus,  w.  its  correlatives,  63, 1. 

quasi,  220. 

quaternarius,  284,  B,  5. 

-que,  100,  5,  L,  1 ;  257,  3. 

queror,  232,  4. 

questions,  of  doubt,  deliberation,  or 
appeal,  205 ;  potential,  205,  3 ;  in  orat. 
obliq.,  228, 3, 4 ;  particles  introducing, 
258. 

qui,  indef.,  62,  6;  119;  interrog.,  62,  2,  4; 
relative,  62,  1;  114;  for  et  is,  259, 15; 
qui  used  in  suggestive  sense,  116, 10. 

qul,  abl.,  62,  9;  adv.,  62,  9. 

qui  (relative),  in  protasis,  221 ;  =  ut  is, 
w.  subj.,  222;  defining,  w.  subj.,  223; 
after  dignus,  etc.,  223,  2;  after  indef. 
or  interrog.  prons.  and  general  nega- 
tives, 223,  3;  qui  non  or  quin,  in 
clause  depending  on  negative  or  in- 
terrogative, 223,  3, 1 ;  qui,  w.  subj.  de- 
fining indefinite  general  expressions, 
223,  4;  after  comp.  w.  quam,  223,  5; 
restricting,  223, 6 ;  giving  the  reason, 


224;  reason  w.  indie.,  224,  n.  2;  qui 
quia,qui  quoniam,224,  n.  3;  adversa- 
tive, 225;  rel.  cl.  dependent  on  an- 
other subj.  or  an  inf.,  226;  qui  w.  the 
indie.,  227 ;  rel.  clauses  attracted  into 
inf.  in  orat.  obi.,  228,  1,  2;  participles 
used  for,  251, 1. 

quia,  232;  sed  quia,  232,  1;  w.  subj.  in 
orat.  obi.,  228, 1, 1 ;  w.  inf.,  228, 1,  2. 

quid  quod  ?  233. 

quidam,  119,  6. 

quidem,  w.  pers.  and  demons,  prons., 
116,9;  w.  qui,  223,  6, 1. 

quilibet,  119,  6. 

quin,  denoting  result  w.  subj.,  207 ;  after 
vbs.  of  omitting,  etc.,  211;  211,  1;  for 
qui  non,  223,  3, 1  and  2. 

quippe  qui,  224,  n.  1. 

quis,  interrog.,  62 ;  indef.,  62 ;  119, 1,  2. 

quis  =  quibus,  62,  11. 

quispiam,  119,  5. 

quisquam,  119,  5. 

quisque,  w.  superlat.,  53,  5;  119,  7;  w. 
se,  suus,  117, 1,  n. 

quisquis,  119,  7. 

quivis,  119,  6. 

quo,  measure  of  difference,  176 ;  mean- 
ing "that  thereby,"  206;  non  quo, 
232,1. 

quo,  adv.,  w.  gen.,  133,  4,  n.  1,  b. 

quoad,  w.  gen..  134,  4,  n.  1,  6;  w.  subj., 
214, 1 ;  w.  indie.,  214, 1,  n.  1. 

quod,  232;  233;  non  quod,  232,  1;  w. 
subj.  of  vbs.  meaning  to  say,  to  think, 
232,  3;  w.  vbs.  of  emotion,  232,  4;  ex- 
plaining a  demonstrative,  232,  5. 

quoi,  quoius,  62,  8. 

quominus,  208 ;  210,  2 ;  211, 1. 

quoniam,  232. 

quot,  w.  its  correl.,  63,  1;  w.  gen.,  133, 
4,  n.  1,  c. 

quoties,  w.  its  correl.,  63,  3. 

quum  (originally  quom).    See  cum. 

rating,  verbs  of,  146. 

re-,  red-,  insep.  prep.,  101,  ii. 

-re  for  -ris,  84,  3. 

reading,  metrical,  303. 

reason,  clauses  denoting  the,  214,  3; 

224;  232. 
recorder,  137.  2. 
recuso,210;  210,2;  211;  237. 
redundant  nouns,  37,  8. 
reduplicated  perfects,  95, 1. 
refert,  142. 
refertus,  181. 
reflexive  pronoun.    See  sui,  suus. 


310 


INDEX. 


refraining,  verbs  of,  211. 

refusing,  verbs  of,  210. 

regno,  w.  gen.,  145. 

relative,  relative  clauses.     See  qui. 

reliquum  est,  w.  subject  clause,  208,  n. 

reliquus,  113,  10. 

relinquo,  w.  two  dats.,  161. 

remaining,  verbs  of,  111. 

remembering,  verbs  of,  137. 

reminding,  verbs  of,  139. 

reminiscor,  137. 

repeated    action,   by  imperf.,    190,  2; 

perf.,  192,  2,  c;  plup.  ind.  or  subj., 

214,  5,  5. 
repleo,  141. 

resisting,  verbs  of,  153,  1. 
resolve,  verbs  of,  241, 1,  2. 
restat,  w.  subject  clause.  208,  n. 
restrictive  clauses  w.  qui,  quod,  223,  6. 
result,  subj.  of,  207. 

rhetorical  questions  in  oratio  obi.,  228, 4. 
rhythm,  261;  rhythms,  falling,  283,  6; 

rising,  283,  6. 

rideo,  w.  ace.  121,  2,  a;  rideor,  121,  2,  d. 
rogo,  127 ;  w.  ut  w.  subj.,  209. 
roots,  16. 

rudis,  w.  gen.  136,  2. 
rus,  130, 3 ;  w.  preps.,  183,  6,  a;  rure,  182 ; 

183,  2 ;  run,  locative,  148,  n. 

s  changed  to  r,  89,  3,  4 ;  91,  3-6 ;  92,  2 ;  94, 
1,  7 ;  final  s  sounded  slightly  or  not  at 
all,  266,  2,  n.  3 ;  274,  2. 

sacer,  162, 1  and  3. 

Sapphic  verse,  284,  E;  greater,  292,2; 
lesser,  292, 1. 

satago,  144. 

satis,  w.  gen.,  133, 4,  n.  1, 6 ;  vbs.  compd. 
w.  governing  dat.,  155. 

Saturnian  verse,  300. 

saying,  verbs  of,  238. 

scazon,  296,  3. 

sciens,  w.  force  of  adv.,  113,  6. 

scito,  84,  4. 

scribor,  245,  1. 

se-,  sed-,  insep.  prep.,  101,  ii.,  4. 

se.    See  sui. 

second  pers.  sing.,  used  of  an  indefi- 
nite subject,  203,  6:  215,  3,  n.  4;  219,  3. 

secundum,  w.  ace.,  131, 1. 

seeming,  verbs  of,  111. 

semi-deponents,  81, 1. 

senarius,  284,  B,  5. 

sending,  vbs.  of,  w.  two  dats.,  161,  3. 

senex,  declined,  31. 

sentences,  simple,  107 ;  direct  and  indi- 
rect, 107, 1,  n. ;  compound,  107,  2. 


separation,  abl.  of,  177 ;  gen.,  145, 2;  dat. 
w.  vbs.  of,  151. 

septenarius,  284,  B,  5. 

sequence  of  tenses,  234. 

sequitur  ut,  208,  n. 

serving,  dat.  w.  vbs.  of,  153, 1. 

seu.    See  sive. 

showing,  vbs.  of,  w.  ace.  and  inf.,  238, 
n.  1. 

showing  oneself,  being  shown,  vbs.  of, 
w.  two  noms.,  Ill ;  w.  two  aces.,  126. 

si,  w.  the  indie.,  188,  1;  215,  2;  w.  opta- 
tive subj.,  203, 3 ;  w.  protasis,  215 ;  ind., 
215,  2;  subj.,  215,  3,  4;  si  omitted,  215, 
2,  n.  2 ;  si  in  indirect  questions,  231,  n. 
2;  258, 14;  compds.  of,  denoting  con- 
cession, 204,  2,2;  in  condit.  clauses, 
215, 1,  n.  2 :  w.  vb.  of  apodosis  omitted, 
220;  220,3. 

sicuti,  220. 

siem  for  sim,  70, 1. 

simile,  305. 

similis,  162,  4. 

simul,  simul  ac,  atque,  ut,  193,  1. 

si  non,  215, 1,  n.  1. 

sine,  w.  abl.,  186. 

singular  after  disjunctives,  110,  6. 

sinistra,  183,  2. 

sino,  209,  5;  242,4. 

sitio,  w.  ace.,  121,  2,  5. 

sive— sive,  257,  6. 

-so  (-sso),  -sim  (-ssim),  84, 12. 

solecism,  305. 

solus,  41 ;  solus  qui,,  223,  2. 

solvo,  177 ;  solutus,  w.  gen.,  177,  2. 

sonare,  w.  ace.,  121,  2,  b. 

-sor,  104,  3. 

Sotadean  verse,  284,  E;  294,  3. 

source,  abl.  of,  178. 

space,  extent  of,  129. 

sparing,  dat.  w.  vbs.  of,  153. 

spe,  comparative  w.,  174,  4. 

specification,  ace.  of,  128 ;  gen.  of,  136, 5 ; 
143,  n.;  145;  abl.  of,  180. 

speech,  parts  of,  12. 

spolio,  177. 

spondaic  line,  285,  5. 

statuo,209;  241. 

stem,  15;  stem  characteristics,  15, 1,  2; 
21,1;  26,1-1;  31,  n.;  94-96. 

sto,  of  cost,  179. 

striving,  vbs.  of,  209,  241. 

studeo,  w.  dat.,  153, 1;  w.  subj.,  209;  w. 
inf.,  241. 

studiosus,  136,  2. 

stultitiae  est,  135. 

suadeo,  153,  2,  o. 


INDEX 


311 


sub,  in  composition,  101,  i. ;  w.  ace.  or 
abl.,  131,  3 ;  vbs.  compd.  w.  governing 
ace.,  122 ;  governing  dat.,  154. 

subject,  108,  1,  2;  subj.  nora.,  109,  110; 
ace.  subj.  of  inf.,  109,  3:  nom.  subj.  of 
inf.,  109, 3,  Exc. ;  243 ;  attracted  as  obj., 
121,  n.  3. 

subjective  genitive,  133,  2. 

subjunctive,  65,  1;  two  chief  uses,  201, 
i.,  ii. ;  ideal,  201, 2 ;  potential,  202 ;  op- 
tative, 203 ;  concessive,  204 ;  in  ques- 
tions of  hesitation  or  appeal,  205 ;  of 
purpose,  206 ;  of  result,  207 ;  in  subst. 
clauses  w.  ut,  ut  non,  quominus,  as 
subjects  of  a  vb.,  208 ;  in  clauses  w.  ut, 
ne,  ut  ne,  obj.,  of  a  vb.,  209;  w.  ne, 
after  vbs.  meaning  to  hinder,  etc.,  210 ; 
w.  quominus,  210,  2;  w.  quin,  211;  in 
appositive  clauses,  212;  after  vbs.  of 
fearing,  213 ;  in  temporal  clauses,  214 ; 
w.  cum,  since,  214,  3;  in  conditional 
sentences,  215;  w.  dum,  modo,  etc., 
217,  3;  gnomic,  218;  second  person, 
215,  3,  n.  4;  219,  3;  W.  qui,  222-225;  in 
incorporated  clause,  attracted.  226 ;  in 
oratio  obliqua,  228;  in  virtual  orat. 
obi.,  230 ;  in  indirect  questions,  231 ;  in 
causal  clauses,  232 ;  w.  quod,  232;  233; 
sequence  of  tenses  in,  234 ;  w.  ut  in  ex- 
clamations, 240,  2 ;  w.  vbs.  of  various 
meanings,  242, 1,  3-8. 

sublimis,  on  high,  113,  6. 

subordinate  clauses,  107,  3. 

substantive  clauses  w.  the  subjunctive, 
as  subjects,  208 ;  objects,  209;  apposi- 
tives,  212. 

subter,  w.  ace.  or  abl.,  131,  4;  postposi- 
tive, 131,  5 ;  vbs.  compd.  w.  gov.  ace., 
122. 

suffixes,  89  sqq. ;  103,  2-6. 

sui,  57, 1 ;  117 ;  w.  quisque,  117, 1,  n. ;  in 
orat.  obliq.,  229.  . 

sum,  70;  compds.  of,  71,  72;  as  copula, 
108,  3, 1 ;  more  than  copula,  108,  3,  2 ; 
w.  predicate  gen.,  135 ;  w.  dat.,  156 ;  161, 
4 ;  two  dats.,  161 ;  w.  dat.  of  gerund, 
252,  9,  2,  3. 

summus,  113,  10. 

suntqui,  223,  4;  227. 

super,  w.  acc.  or  abl.,  131,  4;  postposi- 
tive, 131, 5 ;  compds.  w.  governing  acc., 
122;  dat.,  154. 

superlative,  47-49;  51;  w.  maxime,  50; 
wanting,  50 ;  of  adverbs,  52 ;  meaning 
very,  53,  3 ;  w.  longe,  multo,  unus,  vel, 
quam,quam  potest,53,4;  w. quisque, 
53,5;  w.  gen.,  133,  4,  n.  1,  /,  g. 


supero,  w.  abl.,  168. 

superstes,  162, 1  and  3. 

supine,  65, 6;  68, 3;  93;  96;  wanting,  83; 

acc.  sup.,  253;  of  purpose,  253;  w.  eo, 

85,  7,  2;  253,3;  w.  iri,  85.  7,2;  253,3; 

abl.  sup.,  254;  as  abl.  of  separation, 

254,  2. 

supplico,  bend  the  knees  to,  153,  2,  a. 
supra,  w.  acc.,  131;  postpositive,  131,  5. 
supremus,  113,  10. 
sus,  declined,  31. 
-sus,  104,  5. 
suus,  58, 117 ;  sui,  his  friends,  his  people, 

etc.,  117, 5 ;  meaning  proper,  propitious, 

115,  5. 

syllables,  5 ;  division  of,  5, 1. 
syllepsis,  304. 
synaeresis,  276 ;  304. 
synaloepha,  274,  5;  304. 
synaphia,  282. 
syncope,  278 ;  304. 
synecdoche,  305. 
synecphonesis,  304. 
synesis,  304. 
synizesis,  304. 
synonymia,  305. 
syntax,  107-258. 
systole,  279. 

taedet,  139,  2. 

taking  as,  vbs.  of,  w.  two  aces.,  126. 

taking  away,  vbs.  of,  w.  dat.,  151;  w. 
abl.,  177. 

talis,  w.  its  correlatives,  63, 1. 

tametsi,  215, 1,  n.  2. 

tamquam,  tamquam  si,  220;  220,  L 

tanti,146, 1;  147. 

tantulo,  147,  3. 

tantum  abest  ut,  208,  n. 

tantus,  w.  its  correl.,  63, 1. 

-tas,  104,  35. 

tautology,  305. 

-te,57,  9;  58,5. 

teaching,  vbs.  of,  127;  127, 1,  3. 

tempero,  160, 1. 

temporal  clauses,  214. 

teneo,  se,  w.  abl.,  183,  2;  teneo,  w.  perf. 
pass,  part.,  251,  3. 

tenses,  66;  tense-signs,  origin  and  his- 
tory, 91, 92 ;  tenses,  189-199 ;  in  letters, 
200;  temporal  clauses,  214 ;  of  subj.  in 
wishes,  203,  2 ;  prohibitions,  etc.,  203, 
7,  8;  conditions,  215, 3;  3,  n.  2;  4;  4, 1, 
2,  4,5;  inf.,  246;  imperat.,  247;  part., 
249 ;  sequence  of,  234 ;  in  orat.  obi.  228. 

tenus,  186;  w.  abl.  or  gen.,  186, 1 ;  post- 
positive, 186, 1. 


312 


INDEX. 


tetrameter,  284,  B,  ii.,  2. 

tetrastich,  284,  B,  i.,  2. 

thesis,  283, 1. 

thinking,  verbs  of,  111 ;  126 ;  w.  inf.,  238. 

threatening,  verbs  of,  153, 1. 

-tia,  104,  35. 

time,  how  long,  w.  ace.,  129, 1 ;  w.  per. 

129,  2;  w.  abl.,  129,  3;  185,  10;  time 

when,  185;  w.  prep.,  185,  4;    within 

•which,  185 ;  w.  prep.  185,  4 ;  w.  hie  or 

ille,  185. 5 ;  how  soon,  185, 6 ;  how  long 

ago,  185,  6  sqq. 
timeo,  w.  dat.  or  ace.,  160, 1 ;  w.  ut  or 

ne,  213. 
-tio,  104,  5. 
tmesis,  281;  304. 
-tor,  104,  3. 

tot,  w.  its  correlatives,  63, 1. 
toties,  w.  its  correlatives,  63,  2 ;  63, 4. 
totus,  41 ;  w.  abl.  of  place,  183,  2. 
towns,  names  of  denoting  place  whith 

er,  130, 1 ;  place  where,  148 ;  w.  preps., 

183,  6,  a. 
trader,  245. 
trans,  w.  ace.,  131, 1 ;  compds.  of  w.  ace., 

122;  w.  two  aces.,  122,  n.  2. 
transient  qualities,  134,  n.  1. 
transitive  verbs,  64,  3. 
tres,  declension,  55, 1. 
tricolum,  284,  B,  i.  1. 
trihemimeral  caesura,  284,  A,  1. 
trihemimeris,  284,  A. 
trimeter,  284,  B,  ii.  2 
-trix,  104,  4. 
trochaic  metres,  290. 
trochaeo-dactylic  verses,  292. 
trochee,  283,  2;  irrational,  265,  7;  290, 1, 

n.  1. 

-trum,104,  13. 
-tudo,  104,  35. 

turn— turn,  257,  6;  cum— turn,  257,  6. 
-tura,  104.  5. 

turpis,  w.  abl.  supine,  254. 
-tus,  104,  5,  33. 
tuus,  58 ;  115,  4,  5 ;  thy  own,  agreeable,  fit, 

115,  5. 

ubi,  w.  gen.,  133, 4,  n.  1,  b ;  w.  aor.,  193, 1. 

-ubus  for  -ibus,  34,  4. 

-ula,  -ulum,  -ulus,  104,  25. 

ullus,  decl.,  41 ;  use,  119,  5. 

ultimus,  113, 10 ;  ultimus  qui,  223,  2. 

ultra,  AV.  ace.,  141. 

-um  for  -arum,  19,  4 ;  for  -orum,  23,  5. 

uncia,  56,  3 ;  309 ;  310 ;  312 ;  unciae  usu- 

rae,  308. 
-uncula,  -unculus,  104,  28. 


-undi,  -undus,  84, 11. 

unlikeness,  gen.  or  dat.  w.  adjs.  of, 
162,  4. 

unreal  conditional  sentence,  215,  4. 

unus,  decl.,  55;  plur.  of,  55,  4;  w.  ex  or 
de,  133,  4,  n.  5 ;  unus  qui,  223,  2. 

-ura,  104,  20. 

urging,  verbs  of,  209,  n. 

useful,  dat.  w.  adjs.  signifying,  162. 

usque,  183,  6,  6. 

usus,  w.  abl.,  171. 

usu  venit  ut,  208,  n. 

ut,  concessive,  204,  2;  of  purpose,  206; 
of  result,  207 ;  in  substantive  clauses 
as  subjects,  208;  as  objects,  209;  omit- 
ted, 209,  4,  5;  in  appositive  clauses, 
212;  w.  verbs  of  fearing,  213;  in  ex- 
clamatory questions,  240. 

utnon,207;  208;  209,1. 

ut  qui,  224,  n.  1. 

ut  si,  220. 

uter,  decl.,  41 ;  w.  gen.,  134, 4,  n.  1,  c. 

uterque,  119,  9,  b;  133,  4,  n.  1,  c. 

utilius,  w.  indie.,  196. 

utinam,  203,  2. 

utor,  167 ;  idiomatic  uses,  167, 3 ;  uten- 
dus,  80,  5,  Exc. ;  167,  2. 

utpote,  w.  rel.  giving  the  reason,  224, 
n.  1. 

utrum,  258,  6,  8,  9, 12. 

-utus,  104,  44. 

uu  avoided,  23, 2. 

vacuus,  181 ;  w.  ab,  181, 1 ;  \y.  gen.  (rare 

or  poet),  181, 1. 
vae,  w.  dat,  163. 
valeo,  w.  abl.,  168. 
value,  gen.  of,  146. 
-ve,  257,  5. 
vel,  257,  4;  w.  superlative,  53,  4;  vel— 

vel,  257,  6. 

velut,  velut  si,  220 ;  220, 1. 
vendo,  147,1;  147,3;  179. 
veneo,  147,1;  147,3;  179. 
venio,  w.  two  data.,  161,  3. 
venit  in  mentem,  137,  note, 
verb  endings,  67 ;  89-93. 
verb  stems,  68 ;  94-%. 
verbs,   64-97;   table  of,   w.   principal 

parts,  97;   derivation,   105;   verbals, 

105,  1;  denominatives,  105,  2;  verb 

omitted,  110,  8;  121,5. 
verbum,  w.  appositive  gen.,  133,  5. 
vereor,  w.  gen.  (rare),  145;  w.  dat.  (rare) 

or  ace.,  160, 1 ;  w.  ut  or  lie,  213 ;  w.  inf., 

241, 1. 
verse,  early  dramatic,  302. 


INDEX. 


313 


versification,  283  sqq. 

versus,  w.  ace.,  131 ;  position,  131,  5. 

verto,  to  exchange,  179,  3;  w.  two  date., 
161. 

vescor,  167;   vescendus,  80,  5,    Exc. ; 
167,  2. 

vespertinus,  used  as  adv.,  113,  6. 

vestri,  vestrum,  133, 1,  n.  2,  c. 

veto,  242,  7 ;  vetor,  245, 1. 

viciniae,  143,  2. 

vicinus,  162,  2,  3;  136,7. 

videor,  245,  1.-2. 

vis,  declined,  31. 

vivo,  w.  abl.,  167, 1. 

vocative,  irreg.,  23,  3 ;  use,  120,  2 ;  posi- 
tion, 120, 5. 

voices,  64 ;  64, 1,  2. 

volens,  113,  6;  mini  volenti  est,  156,  2. 
27 


volo,  w.  subj.  without  ut,  209,  5 ;  w.  ut, 

242,3;  w.  inf.,  241;  242. 
voti  damnatus,  reus,  140,  2,  n. 
vowels,  2. 
vox,  w.  appositive  gen.,  133, 5. 

want,  verbs  of,  143;  170;  adjs.  of,  136, 

2;  181. 

weak  caesura,  286,  7. 
weights,  Roman,  309. 
wishing,  verbs  of,  209,  5;  241 ;  242. 
"  without,"  w.  participle,  251, 2. 

year,  how  denoted,  313,  8. 

"  yes,"  258, 16. 

yielding,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  153. 

zeugma,  304. 


CMP  TUB 

UNIVERSIT 


THE 


END. 


MODEL  TEXT-BOOKS 


CHASE  &  STUART'S  CLASSICAL  SERIES. 

COMPRISING 

A  First  Latin  Book, 

JL  Latin  Grammar, 

A  Latin  Reader, 

Ccesar's  Commentaries, 

First  Six  Books  of  JEneid, 
Virgil's  Mneid, 

Virgil's  Eclogues  and  Georgics, 

Cicero's  Select  Orations, 
Horace's  Odes,  Satires,  and  Epistles, 
Sallust's  Catiline  et  Jugurtha, 

Cicero  De  Senectute,  et  De  Amicitia, 
Cornelius  Nepos, 

Cicero  De  Officiis, 
Cicero's  Tusculan  Disputations, 

Cicero  de  Oratore,  Juvenal, 

\  ?  Terence,  Tacitus, 

Ovid.  Livy. 


LOAN  DEPT 


.General  Library 

"•""%££?&«> 


YB  00298 


11527 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


